Sensors And Transducers

Sensor:- A device that produces an output signal for the purpose of sensing a
physical phenomenon.
• Sensors are also referred to as Transducers.
• They cover a broader range of activities, which provide them with the ability to
identify environmental inputs that can extend beyond the human senses.

Transducer:- A device that converts a signal from one physical form to a

corresponding signal, which has a different physical form.
• A typical input signal could be electrical, mechanical, thermal and optical.
• The signal detection is normally handled by electrical transducers in
manufacturing industries involving certaion process automation.
• A transducer is an element or device used to convert information from one form
to another.
• The change in information is measured easily.
 Sensor Classification

Classification Sensor Type

Signal Characteristics Analog, Digital
Power supply Active, Passive
Mode of Operation Null-type. Deflection
Subject of Measurement Acoustic, biological, chemical, electric,
mechanical, optical, radiation, thermal,
others
 Sensor Classification
In the design of a Mechatronics system, selection of a suitable sensor is very important.
The sensors are classified into two categories based on the output signal, power supply,
operating mode and the variables being measured.

Based on the signal Characteristics Sensors are classified into two types. They are:-
1. Analog Sensor:-
• Analog is a term used to convey the meaning of a continuous, uninterrupted and
unbroken series of events.
• Analog sensors typically have an output, which is proportional to the variable being
measured.
• The output changes in a continuous way and this information is obtained on the basis of
amplitude.
• The output is normally supplied to the computer using an Analog-to-Digital converter.

2. Digital Sensor:-
• Digital refers to a sequence of discrete events.
• Each event is separate from the previous and next events.
• The sensors are digital if their logic level outputs are of a digital nature.
• Digital sensors are known for their accuracy and precision and do not require any
converters when interfaced with a computer monitoring system.
 Sensor Classification

Another form of classification, Active or Passive, is based on the Power supply.

1. Active sensors:-
• Active sensors require external power for their operation.
• The external signal is modified by the sensor to produce the out[put signal.
• Typical examples of devices requiring an auxiliary energy source are strain gauges
and resistance thermometers.

2. Passive sensors:-
• In a passive sensor, the output is produced from the input parameters.
• The passive sensors(self generating) produce an electrical signal in response to an
external stimulus.
• Examples of passive types of sensors include piezoelectric, thermoelectric and
radioactive.
 Sensor Classification

Based on the operating and display mode of an instrumentation system, sensors are
classified as deflection type or null-type.
1. Deflection Sensors:- Deflection sensors are used in a physical setup where the
output is proportional to the measured quantity that is displayed.

2. Null Sensors:- In null-type sensing, any deflection due to the measured quantity is
balanced by the opposing calibrated force so that any imbalance is detected.

A final classification of sensors is based on the subject of measurement. Such subjects

include acoustic, biological, chemical, electric, magnetic, mechanical, thermal, optical,
radiation and others.
 Transducer Classification
Transducer Classification Based on the Principle of Transduction
Potentiometric:- Potentiometric Transducers apply the principle of change in
resistance of material in the sensor. Ex:- Linear Potentiometer, Rotary
Potentiometer, etc.

Capacitance:- Capacitance Transducers apply the principle of capacitance

variation between a set of plate assemblies. Ex:- Parallel plate capacitive
transducers, differential capacitive transducer, etc.

Inductance:- Inductance Transducers are based on the principle of variation of

inductance by the insertion of core material into the inductor. Inductance variations
serve as a measure of displacement. Ex:- LVDT, RVDT, etc.

Piezoelectric:- Piezoelectric Transducers are based on the principle of charge

generation. Whenever certain piezoelectric crystals are subjected to mechanical
motion, all electric voltage is induced. This effect can be reversed by applying an
electric voltage and deforming the crystal.
Ex:- Piezoelectric Ultrasonic transducer, Piezoelectric gyroscope, etc.
 Differences Between Sensors and
Transducers
Feature Sensor Transducer
A sensor detects a physical
quantity (like temperature, A transducer converts one form
Definition pressure, or light) and converts of energy into another (e.g.,
it into a readable signal (e.g., mechanical to electrical).
electrical, mechanical).
Senses a change in the
Converts the sensed signal into
environment and produces an
Function a different form that can be
output (usually electrical or
processed or measured.
mechanical).
Provides an output that may
Usually provides a direct
Type of Output require further signal
electrical or mechanical signal.
conditioning or processing.
- Thermocouple (converts heat
- Thermistor (detects
to voltage)
Example temperature)
- Microphone (converts sound
- Photodiode (detects light)
to an electrical signal)
A transducer includes a sensor
A sensor is a part of a
Nature as part of its working
transducer.
mechanism.
The following terms are used to define the performance of transducers, and often
measurement systems as a whole.

1. Range and span:-

• The range of a transducer defines the limits between which the input can vary.
• The span is the maximum value of the input minus the minimum value.
• Thus, for example, a load cell for the measurement of forces might have a range of 0
to 50 kn and a span of 50 kn.

2. Error:-
Error is the difference between the result of the measurement and the true value of the
quantity being measured:
Error = measured value - true value
• Thus, if a measurement system gives a temperature reading of 25°c when the actual
temperature is 24°c, then the error is +1°c.
• If the actual temperature had been 26°c then the error would have been -1°c.
• A sensor might give a resistance change of 10.2 V when the true change should have
been 10.5 V.
• The error is -0.3 V.
3. Accuracy:-
• The degree of closeness between the measured value and the true value.
• Often expressed as a percentage of the full-scale reading.
• Affected by factors like sensitivity, linearity, and environmental conditions.
Ex: A digital weighing scale with an accuracy of ±0.1 g will show a variation of up to 0.1 g
from the actual weight.

4. Sensitivity:-
• The sensitivity is the relationship indicating how much output is there per unit input, i.e.
output/input.
Ex: A thermocouple with a sensitivity of 40 µV/°C will generate 40 microvolts for every
1°C change in temperature.
5. Hysteresis error:-
• The difference in output when the input is increasing versus when it is decreasing.
• Fig.2.1 shows such an output with the hysteresis error as the maximum difference in
output for increasing and decreasing values.

Fig.2.1 Hysteresis
6. Linearity:-
• The degree to which the output signal is directly proportional to the input signal over
the operating range.
Ex: A pressure sensor with ±0.1% linearity will deviate only 0.1% from a straight-line
response to pressure changes.

7. Repeatability/Reproducibility:-
• the terms repeatability and reproducibility of a transducer are used to describe its
ability to give the same output for repeated applications of the same input value.
Ex: A microphone that records the same sound level under identical conditions
consistently demonstrates good precision.

8. Stability:-
• The stability of a transducer is its ability to give the same output when used to
measure a constant input over a period of time.
• The term drift is often used to describe the change in output that occurs over time.
• Drift is the slow change in the output over time for a constant input.
Ex: A piezoelectric accelerometer may show output drift due to temperature changes.
9. Dead band/time:-
• The dead band or dead space of a transducer is the range of input values for
which there is no output. For example, bearing friction in a flowmeter using a
rotor might mean that there is no output until the input has reached a particular
velocity threshold.
• The dead time is the length of time from the application of an input until the
output begins to respond and change.

10. Resolution:-
• The smallest change in input signal that can produce a detectable change in
output.
Ex: A digital thermometer with a resolution of 0.1°C can measure temperature
changes as small as 0.1°C.

11. Impedance:-
• The electrical resistance presented by the transducer to the input signal.
Ex: A piezoelectric sensor with high output impedance (e.g., 1 MΩ) may require a
matching preamplifier for accurate signal transmission.
 LIGHT SENSORS

Fig.2.3 Light Sensor

Light sensors convert Light energy into electrical energy.

Here, we will be discussing about four different types of light sensors. They are:-
1. Photodiodes
2. Phototransistors
3. Photoresistors
4. Charge-coupled Device
 LIGHT SENSORS

Fig.2.3 Photodiode
1. Photodiodes:-
• Photodiodes are semiconductor junction diodes that are connected in reverse bias
within a circuit, resulting in a very high resistance (Fig. 2.3(a)).
• In the absence of light, the reverse current is minimal and is referred to as the dark
current.
• When light strikes the junction, additional hole–electron pairs are generated, leading to
an increase in the reverse current and a reduction in the diode's resistance (Fig. 2.3(b)).
• The reverse current is almost directly proportional to the intensity of the incident light.
 LIGHT SENSORS

Fig.2.4 Photo Darlington

2. Phototransistors:- The phototransistors have a light-sensitive collector–base p–n

junction. When there is no incident light there is a very small collector-to-emitter current.
When light is incident, a base current is produced that is directly proportional to the light
intensity. This leads to the production of a collector current which is then a measure of the
light intensity. Phototransistors are often available as integrated packages with the
phototransistor connected in a Darlington arrangement with a conventional transistor
(Fig.2.4). Because this arrangement gives a higher current gain, the device gives a much
greater collector current for a given light intensity.
 LIGHT SENSORS
3. Photoresistor:- A photoresistor has a resistance which depends on the intensity of the
light falling on it, decreasing linearly as the intensity increases. The cadmium sulphide
photoresistor is most responsive to light having wavelengths shorter than about 515 nm
and the cadmium selinide photoresistor for wavelengths less than about 700 nm.
An array of light sensors is often required in a small space in order to determine the
variations of light intensity across that space. An example of this is in the digital camera
to capture the image being photographed and convert it into a digital form. For this
purpose a charge-coupled device (CCD) is often used.
4. Charge-Coupled Device:- A CCD is a light-sensitive arrangement of many small
light-sensitive cells termed pixels. These cells are basically a p-layer of silicon,
separated by a depletion layer from an n-type silicon layer. When exposed to light, a cell
becomes electrically charged and this charge is then converted by electronic circuitry
into an 8-bit digital number. In taking a photograph the digital camera electronic
circuitry discharges the light sensitive cells, activates an electromechanical shutter to
expose the cells to the image, then reads the 8-bit charge value for each cell and so
captures the image. Since the p-n cells are color blind and we need color photographs,
the light passes through a color filter matrix before striking the cells. This allows just
green light to fall on some cells, blue on others and red light on others. Then, by later
taking account of the output from neighbouring cells, a color image can be created.
Linear Variable Differential Transformer
The linear variable differential transformer, generally
referred to by the acronym LVDT, is a type of
Electromechanical Transducer which converts linear
motion of an object to which it is attached into a
proportional electrical signal
(or)
It is a type of Electromechanical Transducer which
converts rectilinear motion of an object to which it is
coupled mechanically into corresponding electrical
signal.
Fig.2.5.1 LVDT
Construction:-
It consists of three coils symmetrically spaced along an
insulated tube (Fig.2.5.1). the central coil is the primary
coil and the other two are identical secondary coils
which are connected in series in such a way that their
outputs oppose each other. a magnetic core is moved
through the central tube as a result of the displacement
being monitored.
Linear Variable Differential Transformer
Working:-
When there is an alternating voltage input to the
primary coil, alternating e.m.f.s are induced in the
secondary coils. With the magnetic core central, the
amount of magnetic material in each of the secondary
coils is the same. thus the e.m.f.s induced in each coil
are the same. since they are so connected that their
outputs oppose each other, the net result is zero output.
however, when the core is displaced from the central
position there is a greater amount of magnetic core in
one coil than the other, e.g. more in secondary coil 2
than coil 1. the result is that a greater e.m.f. is induced
in one coil than the other. there is then a net output from
the two coils. since a greater displacement means even
more core in one coil than the other, the output, the
difference between the two e.m.f.s increases the greater
the displacement being monitored (Fig.2.5.2). Fig.2.5.2 LVDT output
Linear Variable Differential Transformer
the e.m.f. induced in a secondary coil by a changing current i in the primary coil is given by

where M is the mutual inductance, its value depending on the number of turns on the coils
and the ferromagnetic core. thus, for a sinusoidal input current of i = Isinωt to the primary
coil, the e.m.f.s induced in the two secondary coils 1 and 2 can be represented by

where the values of k1 , k2 and Ø depend on the degree of coupling between the primary and
secondary coils for a particular core position. Ø is the phase difference between the primary
alternating voltage and the secondary alternating voltages. Because the two outputs are in
series, their difference is the output
Linear Variable Differential Transformer
When the core is equally in both coils, k1 equals k2 and so the output voltage is zero.
When the core is more in 1 than in 2 we have k1 > k2 and

When the core is more in 2 than in 1 we have k1 < k2 . a consequence of k1 being less
than k2 is that there is a phase change of 180° in the output when the core moves from
more in 1 to more in 2. Thus
 Potentiometers
Potentiometric Principle:- A displacement
transducer using variable resistance transduction
principle can be manufactured with a rotary or
linear potentiometer.
A potentiometer is a transducer in which a
rotation or displacement is converted into a
potential difference.
• As shown in Fig.2.6, the displacement of
the wiper of a potentiometer causes the
output potential difference obtained
between one end of the resistance and
the slider. This device converts linear or
angular motion into changing resistance,
which may be converted directly to a
voltage or current signal. The position of
the slider along the resistance element Fig.2.6 Potentiometer Transducer
determines the magnitude of the electrical Principle
potential. The voltage across the wiper of
linear potentiometer is measured in terms
of the displacement, d, and given by the
relationship
 Potentiometers
• If there is any loading effect from the output terminal, the linear relationship
between the wiper position and the output voltage will change.
• The error, which is called the loading error, is caused by the input impedance
of the output devices. To reduce the loading error, a voltage source, which is
not seriously affected by load variations (e.g., stabilized power source) and
signal-conditioning circuitry with high-input impedance should be used. It is
also advisable to isolate the wiper of the potentiometer from the sensing
shaft.
• The disadvantage of the potentiometric transducer is its slow dynamic
performance, low resolution, and susceptibility to vibration and noise.
However, displacement transducers with a relatively small traverse length
have been designed using strain-gauge-type resistance transducers.
Rotary Potentiometer :- If the movement of the slider is in a circular path along a
resistance element, rotational information is converted into information in the form of a
potential difference. The output of the rotary transducer is proportional to the angular
movement.
 Potentiometers

Features
• Linear potentiometers are often considered when an electrical signal proportional
to displacement is required, but also where cost should be kept low and high
accuracy is not critical.
• Typical rotary potentiometers have a range of 170°. Their linearity varies from
0.01 to 1.5%.

Applications
• Used for position monitoring of products on assembly lines and checking
dimensions of the product
in quality control systems.
• Rotary potentiometers are used in applications involving rotational measurement
for applications
ranging from machine tools to aircraft.
 Strain Gauge
A strain gauge is a thin, flexible device that is bonded to the surface of a material or structure
to measure strain (deformation) in that material.

A resistance strain gauge consists of a grid of fine resistance wire of about 20 micro m in
diameter. The elements are formed on a backing film of electrically insulating material.
Current strain gauges are manufactured from constantan foil, a copper-nickel alloy, or single-
crystal semiconductor materials. The gauges are formed either mechanically or by
photochemical etching. Strain-gauge transducers are of two types: unbonded and bonded.
 Strain Gauge

Unbonded Strain Gauges:- In an unbonded strain gauge

(Fig(a)), the resistance wire is stressed between the two
frames. The first frame is called the fixed frame, and the
second is called a moving frame. The wires in the
unbonded gauges are connected such that the input
motion of one frame stretches one set of wires and
compresses another set of wires.
As an example, a 20 m diameter wire is wound between
insulated pins with one attached to a stationary frame and
the other to a movable frame. For a particular stress input,
the winding experiences either an increase or decrease in
stress, resulting in a change in resistance. The output is
connected to a Wheatstone bridge for measurement. With Fig.2.2(a) Stretched unbonded
this type of strain gauge, measurement of small motions Strain Gauge
as small as a few microns can be made.
 Strain Gauge
Bonded Strain Gauge:- Bonded strain-gauge
transducers are widely used for measuring strain, force,
torque, pressure, and vibration. The gauges have a
backing material. Bonded strain gauges (Fig.2.2(b)) are
made of metallic or semiconductor materials in the form
of a wire gauge or thin metal foil. When the gauges are
bonded to the surface, they undergo the same strain as
that of the member surface. The coefficient of thermal
expansion of the backing material should be matched to
that of the wire.
Strain gauges are sensitive devices and are used with an
electronic measuring unit. The strain gauge is normally
made part of a Wheatstone bridge, so the change in its
resistance due to strain either can be measured or used to Fig.2.2(b) Bonded wire strain
produce an output, which can be displayed. Strains as low gauge
as a fraction of a micron can be measured using strain
gauges.
 Hall Effect Sensors
Hall effect transducers are used to measure
position, displacement, level, and flow. They
can be used as an analog motion sensing
device as well as a digital device. The Hall
effect occurs when a strip of conducting
material carries current in the presence of a
transverse magnetic field, as shown in Fig.2.7.
The Hall effect results in the production of an
electric field perpendicular to the directions of
both the magnetic field and the current with a
magnitude proportional to the product of the
magnetic field strength, the current, and
various properties of the conductor. An electron
of charge, e, traveling in a magnetic field, B,
with a velocity v, experiences a Lorenz force F,
Fig.2.7 Hall Effect Principle
and it is
represented by
F = e(v * B)
 Hall Effect Sensors
• An electric field, known as Hall’s field, counterbalances Lorenz’s force and is
represented by an electric potential. The voltage produced may be used to produce
field strength or a current.
• Fig.2.7 shows the Hall effect principle.
• Current is passed through leads 1 and 2 of the element. The output leads are
connected to the element faces 3 and 4.
• These output ends are at the same potential when there is no transverse magnetic field
passing through the element.
• When there is a magnetic flux passing through the element, a voltage V appears
between output leads. This voltage is proportional to the current and the field strength.
• The output voltage is represented in terms of element thickness, the flux density of the
field, the current through the element, and the Hall coefficient as

……….Eq(1)
where
• H Hall coefficient, which can be defined as transverse electric potential gradient per
unit
• magnetic field per unit current density. The units are V-m per A-Wb/m2
• I current through the element (A)
• B flux density of the field (Wb/m2)
• t thickness of the element (m)
 Hall Effect Sensors
The overall sensitivity of the transducer depends on the
Hall coefficient. The Hall effect may be either negative or
positive, depending on the material crystalline structure,
and is present in metals and semiconductors in varying
amounts based on the characteristics of the materials.
Rotational Measurement The basic operating principle
of the Hall effect, which produces an output voltage Fig.2.8 Hall Element for Angular
proportional to a small rotary displacement, is shown in Measurement
the Fig.2.8
The Hall sensor is suspended between the poles of a
permanent magnet connected to the shaft, as shown in
Fig.2.9. The probe is stationary, and the permanent magnet
connected to the shaft rotates. With a constant control
current applied to the electrical contacts at the end of the
probe, the Hall voltage generated across the probe is
directly proportional to the sine of the angular
displacement of the shaft. Small rotations up to six
degrees can be measured precisely with such probes. The
Fig.2.9 Rotational Transducer
main advantage of such devices is that they have no
contact, small size, and good resolution.
 Hall Effect Sensors
Output voltage generated for a rotation of degrees is summarized as

……..Eq(2)

Here is the angle between the magnetic field and the Hall plate.
Constructional Details of a Hall Effect Sensor
The Hall element requires signal conditioning to make the output usable for most
applications. The signal conditioning electronics needed are amplifier stage and
temperature compensation. Voltage regulation is needed when operating from an
unregulated supply. Fig.2.10 illustrates a basic Hall effect sensor. If the Hall voltage is
measured when no magnetic field is present, the output is zero (Fig.2.7). However, if
voltage at each output terminal is measured with respect to ground, a non-zero voltage
will appear. This is the common mode voltage (CMV) and is the same at each output
terminal. It is the potential difference that is zero. The amplifier shown in Fig.2.10 must
be a differential amplifier in order to amplify only the potential difference (i.e., the Hall
voltage).
 Hall Effect Sensors
The Hall voltage is a low-level signal on
the order of 30 V in the presence of a
one gauss magnetic field. This low-level
output requires an amplifier with low
noise, high input impedance, and
moderate gain. A differential amplifier
with these characteristics can be readily
integrated with the Hall element using
standard bipolar transistor technology.
Temperature compensation is also
easily integrated. As was shown by
Eq(2), the Hall voltage is a function of
the input current. The purpose of the
regulator in Fig.2.10 is to hold this
current constant so that the output of
the sensor only reflects the intensity of
the magnetic field. As many systems
Fig.2.10 Basic Analog Output hall effect sensor
have a regulated supply available, some
Hall effect sensors may not include an
internal regulator.
 Hall Effect Sensors
Analog Output Sensors The sensor described in Fig.2.10 is a basic
analog output device. Analog sensors provide an output voltage that
is proportional to the magnetic field to which it is exposed. The
sensed magnetic field can be either positive or negative. As a result,
the output of the amplifier will be driven either positive or negative.
Hence, a fixed offset or bias is introduced into the differential
amplifier which appears on the output when no magnetic field is
present and is referred to as a null voltage. When a positive
magnetic field is sensed, the output increases above the null voltage.
Conversely, when a negative magnetic field is sensed, the output
decreases below the null voltage, but remains positive. This concept
is illustrated in Fig.2.11.
Also, the output of the amplifier cannot exceed the limits imposed
by the power supply. In fact, the amplifier will begin to saturate
before the limits of the power supply are reached. This saturation is
illustrated in Fig.2.11. It is important to note that this saturation
takes place in the amplifier and not in the Hall element. Thus, large Fig.2.11 Hall Effect Sensor’s
magnetic fields will not damage the Hall effect sensors, but rather Characteristic Curve
drive them into saturation. To further increase the interface
flexibility of the device, an open emitter, open collector, or push-
pull transistor is added to the output of the differential amplifier.
 Hall Effect Sensors
Fig.2.12 shows a complete analog output Hall effect sensor incorporating all of the
previously discussed circuit functions.

Fig.2.12 Analog Output Hall Effect Sensor

 Hall Effect Sensors

Digital Output Sensors The digital Hall effect sensor

has an output that is just one of two states: ON or
OFF. The basic analog output device illustrated in
Fig.2.10 can be converted into a digital output sensor
with the addition of a Schmitt trigger circuit. Fig.2.13
illustrates a typical internally regulated digital output
Hall effect sensor. The Schmitt trigger compares the
output of the differential amplifier with a preset
reference. When the amplifier output exceeds the
reference, the Schmitt trigger turns on. Conversely,
when the output of the amplifier falls below the
reference point, the output of the Schmitt trigger turns
off.

Fig.2.13 Digital Output Hall Effect Sensor

 Applications of Hall Effect Sensors
Applications of Hall Effect Sensors:- Hall effect transducers are widely used as
proximity sensors, limit switches, liquid level measurement, and flow measurement.
They are also used for sensing deflections in biomedical implants. Hall effect
transducers are constructed in various configurations depending on the application.
Hall effect principle is used to make devices such as, Hall effect vane switches, Hall-
effect current sensors, and Hall-effect magnetic field strength sensors. Hall effect
sensors tend to be more expensive than inductance proximity sensors but have better
signal-to-noise ratios and are suitable for low-speed operation.

Position Sensing:- Fig2.14(a) shows a schematic of a Hall effect sensor used for
sensing sliding motion. A tightly controlled gap is maintained between the magnet
and the hall element. As the magnet moves back and forth at that fixed gap, the
magnetic field induced by the element becomes negative as it approaches the North
Pole and positive as it approaches the South Pole. This type of position sensor
features mechanical simplicity, and when used with a large magnet, it can detect
position over a long magnet travel.
The output characteristic of the sensor has a fairly large linear range, as shown in
Fig.2.14(b). It is necessary to maintain rigidity in linear motion and prevent any
orthogonal movements of the magnet when the sensor is used for measuring sliding
motion.
Applications of Hall Effect Sensors

Fig.2.14 (a) Sliding Sensor (b) Output Characteristics

 Proximity Sensors
Proximity sensors are devices used in mechatronics and automation to
detect the presence or absence of objects without physical contact.
They rely on various principles such as electromagnetic, capacitive,
inductive, or optical sensing. Here's an explanation along with a diagram
of a general proximity sensor:
Diagram and Explanation of an Inductive Proximity Sensor
Inductive Proximity Sensor:
Principle of Operation: Inductive proximity sensors work on the
principle of electromagnetic induction. They generate a high-frequency
electromagnetic field around the sensing area. When a metallic object
enters this field, it causes a change in the electromagnetic field, which is
detected by the sensor. This change triggers the sensor to activate and
produce an output signal.

Department of MTE Sharvani G R