CHAPTER-2

INTRODUCTION TO MODILING

1
DAMPING ELEMENTS

2
3
 Damping Elements

Hysteresis loop for elastic materials:

4
 Damping Elements
Construction of Viscous Dampers

µ
Velocity of intermediate fluid layers
Fixed plane are assumed to vary linearly

Plate be moved with a velocity v in its own plane

5
 Damping Elements
Shear Stress ( ) developed in the fluid layer at a
distance y from the fixed plate is:
du
  1.26
dy
where du/dy = v/h is the velocity gradient.
• Shear or Resisting Force (F) developed at the bottom
surface of the moving plate is:
Av
F  A    cv 1.27
h
where A is the surface area of the moving plate and
is the damping constant. A
c
h

6
 Damping Elements

If a damper is nonlinear, a linearization process is

used about the operating velocity (v*) and the
equivalent damping constant is:
dF
c
dv v*

7
VIBRATION ANALYSIS PROCEDURE

8
 Vibration Analysis Procedure

Step 1: Mathematical Modeling

Step 2: Derivation of Governing Equations
Step 3: Solution of the Governing Equations
Step 4: Interpretation of the Results

Derive
system/component
Free body diagram
(FBD) Find the response
(solve problem
method)
Response (result):
Displacement, velocities
9 & acceleration
 Vibration Analysis Procedure
Example of the modeling of a forging hammer:

10
 Example 1.1
Mathematical Model of a Motorcycle
Figure below shows a motorcycle with a rider.
Develop a sequence of three mathematical models of
the system for investigating vibration in the vertical
direction. Consider the elasticity of the tires, elasticity
and damping of the struts (in the vertical direction),
masses of the wheels, and elasticity, damping, and
mass of the rider.

11
 Example 1.1
Solution

We start with the simplest model and refine it

gradually. When the equivalent values of the mass,
stiffness, and damping of the system are used, we
obtain a single-degree of freedom model of the
motorcycle with a rider as indicated in Fig.(b). In this
model, the equivalent stiffness (keq) includes the
stiffness of the tires, struts, and rider. The equivalent
damping constant (ceq) includes the damping of the
struts and the rider. The equivalent mass includes the
mass of the wheels, vehicle body and the rider.

12
 Example 1.1
Solution

13
 Example 1.1
Solution
This model can be refined by representing the masses
of wheels, elasticity of tires, and elasticity and
damping of the struts separately, as shown in Fig.(c).
In this model, the mass of the vehicle body (mv) and
the mass of the rider (mr) are shown as a single mass,
mv + mr. When the elasticity (as spring constant kr)
and damping (as damping constant cr) of the rider are
considered, the refined model shown in Fig.(d) can be
obtained.

14
 Example 1.1
Solution

15
 Example 1.1
Solution

Note that the models shown in Figs.(b) to (d) are not

unique. For example, by combining the spring
constants of both tires, the masses of both wheels,
and the spring and damping constants of both struts
as single quantities, the model shown in Fig.(e) can
be obtained instead of Fig.(c).

16
SPRING ELEMENTS

17
 Spring Elements
 Linear spring is a type of mechanical link that
is generally assumed to have negligible mass
and damping.
 Spring force is given by:
F  kx 1.1

F = spring force,
k = spring stiffness or spring constant, and
x = deformation (displacement of one end
with respect to the other)
18
 Spring Elements
Work done (U) in deforming a spring or the
strain (potential) energy is given by:
1 2
U  kx 1.2
2
When an incremental force ΔF is added to F:
F  F  F ( x*  x)
dF
 F (x ) 
*
(x)
dx x*

1 d 2F
 (x) 2  ... 1.3
2! dx 2
x*
19
20
 Spring Elements
Static deflection of a beam at the free end is
given by:
Wl 3
 st  1.6
3EI
W = mg is the weight of the mass m,
E = Young’s Modulus, and
I = moment of inertia of cross-section of beam
Spring Constant is given by:
W 3EI
k  1.7 
 st
l 3

21
 Spring Elements
Combination of Springs:
1) Springs in parallel – if we have n spring
constants k1, k2, …, kn in parallel, then the
equivalent spring constant keq is:
keq  k1  k2  ...  kn 1.11

22
 Spring Elements

Combination of Springs:
2) Springs in series – if we
have n spring constants k1,
k2, …, kn in series, then the
equivalent spring constant
keq is:

1 1 1 1
   ...  1.17 
keq
k k1 2
k n

23
 Example 1.3
Torsional Spring Constant of a Propeller Shaft

Determine the torsional spring constant of the speed

propeller shaft shown in Fig. 1.25.

24
 Example 1.3
Solution
We need to consider the segments 12 and 23 of the
shaft as springs in combination. From Fig. 1.25, the
torque induced at any cross section of the shaft (such
as AA or BB) can be seen to be equal to the torque
applied at the propeller, T. Hence, the elasticities
(springs) corresponding to the two segments 12 and
23 are to be considered as series springs. The spring
constants of segments 12 and 23 of the shaft (kt12 and
kt23) are given by:

25
 Example 1.3
Solution

GJ G ( D  d ) (80  10 ) (0.3  0.2 )

4 4 9 4 4

k 
t12
 12 12 12

l 32l 12
32(2) 12

 25.5255  10 N - m/rad
6

GJ G ( D  d ) (80  10 ) (0.25  0.15 )

4 4 9 4 4

k  
t 23
23 23 23

l 32l 23
32(3) 23

 8.9012  10 N - m/rad
6

26
 Example 1.3
Solution

Since the springs are in series, Eq. (1.16) gives

k k (25.5255  10 )(8.9012  10 ) 6 6

k   t12 t 23

k k (25.5255  10  8.9012  10 )
t eq 6 6

t12 t 23

 6.5997  10 N - m/rad 6

27
 Example 1.5
Equivalent k of a Crane

The boom AB of crane is a uniform steel bar of length 10 m

and x-section area of 2,500 mm2.
A weight W is suspended while the crane is stationary. Steel
cable CDEBF has x-sectional area of 100 mm2. Neglect effect
of cable CDEB, find equivalent spring constant of system in
the vertical direction.

28
 Example 1.5
Solution
A vertical displacement x of pt B will cause the spring k2
(boom) to deform by x2 = x cos 45º and the spring k1 (cable)
to deform by an amount x1 = x cos (90º – θ). Length of
cable FB, l1 is as shown.

l12  32  102  2(3)(10) cos135  151.426

 l1  12.3055 m

29
 Example 1.5
Solution
The angle θ satisfies the relation:
l12  32  2(l1 )(3) cos   102
cos   0.8184,   35.0736
The total potential energy (U):
1 2 1
U  k1( x cos 45)  k2[ x cos(90   )]2 E.1
2 2
A1E1 (100  106 )(207  109 )
k1    1.6822  106 N/m
l1 12.0355
A2 E2 (2500  106 )(207  109 )
k2    5.1750  10 N/m
7
l2 10 30
 Example 1.5
Solution
Potential Energy of the equivalent spring is:
1
U eq  keq x 2 E.2
2

By setting U = Ueq, hence:

keq  26.4304  106 N/m

31
MASS OR INERTIA ELEMENTS

32
 Mass or Inertia Elements

Using mathematical model to represent the actual

vibrating system
E.g. In figure below, the mass and damping of the
beam can be disregarded; the system can thus
be modeled as a spring-mass system as shown.

33
 Mass or Inertia Elements

Combination of Masses
 E.g. Assume that the mass of
the frame is negligible
compared to the masses of
the floors. The masses of
various floor levels represent
the mass elements, and the
elasticities of the vertical
members denote the spring
elements.

34
 Mass or Inertia Elements

Case 1: Translational Masses Connected by a

Rigid Bar

Velocities of masses can be expressed as:

l2 l3
x2  x1 x3  x1 1.18
l1 l1
35
 Mass or Inertia Elements

and,
eq  x
x 1 1.19 

 By equating the kinetic energy of the system:

1 2 1 2 1 2 1
m1x1  m2 x2  m3 x3  meq xeq
2
1.20
2 2 2 2
2 2
 l2   l3 
meq  m1    m2    m3 1.21
 l1   l1 

36
 Mass or Inertia Elements

Case 2: Translational and Rotational Masses

Coupled Together

meq = single equivalent translational mass

x = translational velocity
= rotational velocity

J0 = mass moment of inertia
Jeq = single equivalent rotational mass
37
 Mass or Inertia Elements

Case 2: Translational and Rotational Masses

Coupled Together
1. Equivalent translational mass:
Kinetic energy of the two masses is given by:
1 2 1 2
T  mx  J 0 1.22
2 2
Kinetic energy of the equivalent mass is given by:

1
Teq  meq xeq 2
1.23
2
38
 Mass or Inertia Elements

Case 2: Translational and Rotational Masses

Coupled Together
Since    and xeq  x , equating Teq & T
 x
gives R
J0
meq  m  2
1.24
R
2. Equivalent rotational mass:
Here, eq   and x  R , equating Teq and T gives

J eq  mR   J 0 2

1  2 1  2 1
2 2 2
or J eq  J 0  mR 2 1.25
39
 Example 1.7
Cam-Follower Mechanism

A cam-follower mechanism is used to convert the rotary

motion of a shaft into the oscillating or reciprocating
motion of a valve.

The follower system consists of a pushrod of mass mp, a

rocker arm of mass mr, and mass moment of inertia Jr
about its C.G., a valve of mass mv, and a valve spring of
negligible mass.

Find the equivalent mass (meq) of this cam-follower system

by assuming the location of meq as (i) pt A and (ii) pt C.

40
 Example 1.7
Cam-Follower Mechanism

41
 Example 1.7
Solution
The kinetic energy of the system (T) is:
1 2 1 2 1 2 1
T  m p x p  mv xv  J r r  mr xr
 2
E.1
2 2 2 2
If meq denotes equivalent mass placed at pt A, with
xeq  x the kinetic energy equivalent mass system
Teq is:
1
Teq  meq xeq
2
E.2
2

42
 Example 1.7
Solution

By equating T and Teq, and note that

xl2 xl3 x
x p  x , xv  , xr  , and  r 

l1 l1 l1
Jr l22 l32
meq  m p  2
 mv 2
 mr 2
E.3
l1 l1 l1
Similarly, if equivalent mass is located at point C,
xeq  xv , hence,
1 1
Teq  meq xeq  meq xv2
2
E.4
2 2
43
 Example 1.7
Solution

Equating (E.4) and (E.1) gives

2 2
Jr  l1   l3 
2
meq  mv  2  m p    mr  2  E.5
l2  l2   l1 

44
 Example 1.10
Equivalent Spring and Damping Constants of a Machine Tool
Support

A precision milling machine is supported on four shock

mounts, as shown in Fig. 1.37(a). The elasticity and
damping of each shock mount can be modeled as a
spring and a viscous damper, as shown in Fig.
1.37(b). Find the equivalent spring constant, keq, and
the equivalent damping constant, ceq, of the machine
tool support in terms of the spring constants (ki) and
damping constants (ci) of the mounts.

45
 Example 1.10
Equivalent Spring and Damping Constants of a Machine Tool
Support

46
 Example
1.10 Solution
The free-body diagrams of the four springs and four
dampers are shown in Fig. 1.37(c). Assuming that the
center of mass, G, is located symmetricallyx with
respect to the four springs and dampers, we notice
that all the springs will be subjected to the same
displacement, x , and all the dampers will be subject to
the same relative velocity x , where x and denote
the displacement and velocity, respectively, of the
center of mass, G. Hence the forces acting on the
springs (Fsi) and the dampers (Fdi) can be expressed
as

47
 Example
1.10 Solution

48
 Example
1.10 Solution
F  k x;
si i
i  1,2,3,4
F  c x;
di i
i  1,2,3,4 (E.1)
Let the total forces acting on all the springs and all the
dampers be Fs and Fd, respectively (see Fig. 1.37d).
The force equilibrium equations can thus be
expressed as

F F F F F
s s1 s2 s3 s4

F F F F F
d d1 d2 d3 d4
(E.2)
49
 Example
1.10 Solution
where Fs + Fd = W, with W denoting the total vertical
force (including the inertia force) acting on the milling
machine. From Fig. 1.37(d), we have
F k x
s eq

F  c x
d eq
(E.3)
Equation (E.2) along with Eqs. (E.1) and (E.3), yield
k  k  k  k  k  4k
eq 1 2 3 4
Parallel
c  c  c  c  c  4c
eq 1 2 3 4
(E.4)

50
 Example
1.10 Solution

where ki = k and ci = c for i = 1, 2, 3, 4.

Note: If the center
x of mass, G, is not located
symmetrically with respect to the four springs and
dampers, the ith spring experiences a displacement
of x and the ith damper experiences a velocity of x
i i

where x and x can be related to the displacement

i i

and velocity x of the center of mass of the milling

machine, G. In such a case, Eqs. (E.1) and (E.4)
need to be modified suitably.

51