Lecture 4: Spring and Damping Element

Dr.-Ing. Sudchai Boonto, Assistant Professor

March 15, 2023
Department of Control System and Instrument Engineering, KMUTT
Spring and Damping Elements
Spring Elements

▶ Springs serving as elastic supports for translatory and rotary motion are studied
in this section in relation to their lumped stiffness (or spring constant), denoted
by k.
▶ Springs are mechanical elements that generate elastic forces in translatory
motion and elastic torques in rotary motion that oppose the spring
deformation; this elastic reactions are proportional to the spring deformation
(linear or angular displacement).

1
Spring Elements

▶ The translatory stiffness of the helical spring is

Gd4
kt = ,
64nR3

where d is the wire diameter, R is the radius of the coil, and n is the number of
coils. The shear modulus of elasticity G is a property of the wire material.
▶ the rotary stiffness is

( )
G
Ed4 1 + 2 E
kr = ,
64nR

where E is the modulus of elasticity (Young’s modulus).

▶ For a spring whose end points undergo the displacements x1 and x2 , the elastic
force developed in the spring is proportional to the spring deformation, which is
the difference between the two end point displacements as

fe (t) = k∆x(t) = k (x1 (t) − x2 (t))

2
Spring Elements

▶ Similarly, an elastic torque is generated by a spring in rotation whose end

points undergo the rotations θ1 and θ2 , the elastic torque is

Te (t) = k∆θ(t) = k (θ1 (t) − θ2 (t))

▶ All equation in this section, the springs are assumed to be linear; therefore, the
stiffness is constant.
▶ For a translatory spring, the elastic energy stored corresponding to a
deformation ∆x is

1
Ue = k (∆x(t))2
2

▶ For a rotary spring, the elastic energy relative to an angular deformation ∆θ is

1
Ue = k (∆θ(t))2
2

3
Spring Elements: Series and Parallel

x2 (t)
x1 (t) x2 (t) k1

f (t)
k1 k2 f (t)
k2

(a) Series (b) Parallel

a) For the series (end-to-end) connection in Fig. (a), both springs have the same
force but their deflection f /k1 and f /k2 will not be the same unless their
spring constants are equal. The total deflecton x of the system is obtained from

( )
f f 1 1
x= + = + f
k1 k2 k1 k2
1 1 1
= +
ke k1 k2

This formula can be extended to the case of n springs connected end-to-end as

follows:
4
Spring Elements: Series and Parallel

b) For the parallel (side-by-side) connection in Fig. (b), both springs have the same
deflection x but different forces f1 and f2 . Then

f1 f2
x= = f = f1 + f2
k1 k2
f = k1 x + k2 x = (k1 + k2 )x = ke x

This can be extended to the case of n springs connected in parallel as follows:

∑
n
ke = ki
i=1

5
Spring Elements: A beam in bending under a transverse force

Ebh3
keq = ,
4L3

where E is the modulus of elasticity of beam material.

6
Spring Elements: Lever-spring system

Figure below shows a horizontal force f acting on a lever that is attached to two
springs. Assume that the resulting motion is small enough to be only horizontal and
determine the expression fro the equivalent spring constant that relates the applied
force f to the resulting displacement x.

f x f kx
k
L
2
x
2
kx
k 2
L
2

O
Rx Ry

7
Spring Elements: Lever-spring system

From the triangles shown in the Figure, for small angles θ , the upper spring deflection
is x and the deflection of the lower sprig is x/2. thus the free body diagram is as
shown in the right most of the Figure. For static equilibrium, the net moment about
point O must be zero. This gives

ΣM = 0
xL
f L − kxL − k =0
2 2

Therefore
( x) 5
f =k x+ = kx
4 4

and the equivalent spring constant is ke = 5k/4.

8
Damping Elements

Figure 1: Door Closer

Figure 2: Shock Absorbers

9
Damping Elements

The linear model for the damping force f as a function of the relative velocity v is

f = cv = cẋ,

where c is the damping coefficient. The units of c are force/velocity.

10
Damping Elements

▶ The damping coefficient of a piston-type damper with a single hole is

[( )2 ]2
D
c = 8πµL −1 ,
d

where µ is the viscosity of the fluid, L is the length of the hole through the
piston, d is the diameter of the hole, and D is the diameter of the piston.
▶ The damping with two end points with the velocity v1 and v2 , the net force is

fe (t) = c∆v(t) = c (v1 (t) − v2 (t))

▶ the linear model of a torsional damper is

Te (t) = c∆ω(t) = c (ω1 (t) − ω2 (t))

11
Damping Elements

▶ The energy dissipated through viscous damping is equal to the work done by
the damping force in translation and the damping torque in rotation:

∫ ∫ ∫
dx
Ud = c vdx = cdt = c ẋ2 dt
ẋ
dt
∫ ∫ ∫
dθ
Ud = c ωdθ = c θ̇ dt = c θ̇ 2 dt
dt

12
Spring-Mass-Damping

Assuming there are no friction between a mass and ground.

x(t) x(t)
k
kx(t)
b M f (t) f (t)
M
cẋ(t)

The equation of the motion is

M ẍ = f − kx − cẋ
M ẍ + cẋ + kx = f

Giving x = x1 , ẋ = x2 , f = u and y = x1 , we have

[ ] [ ][ ] [ ] [ ]
ẋ1 0 1 x1 0 [ ] x
1
= + 1 u y= 1 0
ẋ2 −Mk
−Mc
x2 M
x2

13
Spring-Mass-Damping

Derive the equations of motion of the two-mass system shown in Figure below.

(k1 + k2 )x1 (t) k2 x2 (t)

x1 (t) x2 (t)
(c1 + c3 )ẋ1 (t) M1
f (t) k2
f (t) c3 ẋ2 (t)
k1 k3
M1 c3 M2
(k2 + k3 )x2 (t) k2 x1 (t)
M2

c1 c2 (c2 + c3 )ẋ2 (t) c3 ẋ1 (t)

M1 ẍ1 (t) + (c1 + c3 )ẋ1 (t) − c3 ẋ2 (t) + (k1 + k2 )x1 (t) − k2 x2 = f (t)
M2 ẍ2 (t) + (c2 + c3 )ẋ2 (t) − c3 ẋ1 (t) + (k2 + k3 )x2 (t) − k2 x1 = 0

Giving ẋ1 = x3 , ẋ2 = x4 , and f (t) = u the state-space form is

   
  
x˙1 0 0 1 0 x1 0
x˙    x   0 
 2  0 0 0 1   2  
  =  k1 +k2 k2   +  1 u
x˙3  − M1 M1
− c1M
+c2 c3
M1   x3   M 
1 1
k2 k2 +k3 c3
x˙4 M
− M M2
− c2M
+c3
x4 0
2 2 2

14
Rotational Mechanical System: Example

T (t) θ1 (t) θ2 (t)

T (t) θ1 (t) θ2 (t)

J1 J2
J1 J2
k
c1 c2
Bearing Bearing
c1 c2

θ1 (t) The equations of motion are

c1 ω1 (t)
T (t) − c1 θ̇1 (t) − k(θ1 (t) − θ2 (t)) = J1 θ̈1
T (t)
J1 k(θ1 (t) − θ2 (t)) −k(θ2 (t) − θ1 (t)) − c2 θ̇2 (t) = J2 θ̈2

Rearranging , we have (omit the (t))

θ2 (t)
c2 ω2 (t) J1 θ̈1 + c1 θ̇1 + kθ1 − kθ2 = T
J2 θ̈2 + c2 θ̇2 − kθ1 + kθ2 = 0
J2 k(θ2 (t) − θ1 (t))
Try to show the state-space from by
yourself.

15
Effect of Spring Free Length and Object Geometry

▶ (a) the horizontal surface is frictionless. The mass is homogeneous its center of
mass is at the geometric center G of the cube. The free length of the spring is L
and the mass m is in equilibrium when the spring is at its free length. The
equilibrium location of G is the point marked E.
▶ (b) The mass displaced a distance x from the equilibrium position. The spring
has been stretched a distance x from its free length, and thus its force is kx.
▶ (c) We have

mẍ = −kx

Note that neither the free length L nor the cube dimension a appears in the
equation of motion. These two parameters need to be known only to locate the
equilibrium position E of the mass center. We could consider the object as a
point mass. 16
Effect of Gravity

▶ (b) At the equilibrium, the spring stretches a distance δst , which is called the
static spring deflection. Since the mass is in equilibrium, the sum of the forces
acting on it must be zero

mg sin ϕ − kδst = 0

▶ (c) The object displaced a distance x from the equilibrium position. The spring
has been stretched a distance x + δst from its free length, and thus its force is
k(x + δst )
▶ (d) From the free body diagram,

mẍ = −k(x + δst ) + mg sin ϕ = −kx + (mg sin ϕ − kδst ) = −kx 17

Choosing the equilibrium position as coordinate reference

In the previous examples,

▶ a mass connected to a linear spring element, the force due to gravity is
canceled out of the equation of motion by the force in the spring due to its
static deflection, as log the displacement of the mass is measured form the
equilibrium position.
▶ the force caused by its static deflection is called static force and the force
caused by the variable displacement x as the dynamic spring force.
We need not choose the equilibrium
location as the coordinate reference. For
example, if we freely choose the
coordinate y , the corresponding free body
diagram is shown in the left Figure.

mÿ = −k(y − L) + mg sin ϕ

= −ky + kL + mg sin ϕ

Here, kL ̸= mg sin ϕ. The problem is more

complicated. The static term do not cancel
out of the equation.
18
Choosing the equilibrium position as coordinate reference

The advantages of choosing the equilibruim position as the coordinate origin are
1. we need not specify the geometric dimensions of the mass
2. this choice simplifies the equation of motion by elimainating the static forces.

mẍ = −k(m + δst ) + mg

= −kx + (mg − kδst )

Since mg = kδst , then the equation of motion reduces to

mẍ = −kx
19
Choosing the equilibrium position as coordinate reference

▶ The three situations, and the corresponding free body diagrams, have the same
equation of motion, mẍ = −kx.
▶ Any forces acting on the mass, other than gravity and the spring force, are not to
be included when determining the location of the equilibrium position.
20
Choosing the equilibrium position as coordinate reference

▶ a force f acts on the mass.

▶ The equilibrium position E is the location of the mass at which kδst = mg sin ϕ
when f = 0
▶ From the free body diagram, the equation of motion is mẍ = f − kx.
▶ The equation of motions normally have the form

mẍ + kx = f or J θ̈ + kT θ = T

The natural frequencies are

√ √
k kT
wn = or ωn =
m J 21
Cylinder on an Incline

Taking x = 0 to be the equilibrium position, ft to be the tangential force acting on the

cylinder, and ∆ to be the static deflection. We have

mẍ = mg sin α − k(x + ∆) − ft

J ω̇ = Rft

Since the cylinder does not slip, then Rθ = x. We find that

J J
ft = ω̇ = 2 ẍ
R R
22
Cylinder on an Incline

Using the fact from statics that

mg sin α = k∆,

hence

J
mẍ = −kx − ẍ
R2

or
( )
J
m+ ẍ + kx = 0
R2

The natural frequency is

√
k
ωn =
m + J/R2

23
A Generic Mass-Spring-Damper System

The equation of motion is

mẍ = −cẋ − k(x + δst ) + mg + f = −cẋ − kx + f

because kδst = mg. The equation can be rearranged as

mẍ + cẋ + kx = f

24
Coupled Spring and Damper

Let us assume that x > 0, y > 0, and ẋ > ẏ. If so, then the damper force pulls up on
the mass, and me obtain the free body diagrams shown in part (b) of the figure.

mẍ = f − k2 x − c(ẋ − ẏ)

c(ẋ − ẏ) = k1 y

25
Two-Degree-of-Freedom Quarter-Car Model

Derive the differential equations of motion.

Solution: The static equilibrium positions of m1 and m2 are set as the coordinate
origins. Assume

x1 > x2 > z > 0,

which implies that th esprings are in tension and

ẋ1 > ẋ2 > ż > 0. 26

Two-Degree-of-Freedom Quarter-Car Model

At the equilibrium, the static forces in the springs cancel the weights of the masses.
Note that the dampers have no effect in equilibrium and thus do not determine the
location of the equilibrium position. Therefore the free body diagrams showing the
dynamic forces, and not eh static forces.

Applying Newton’s second law to the masses m1 and m2 , respectively, gives

f − k1 (x1 − x2 ) − b1 (ẋ1 − ẋ2 ) = m1 ẍ1 ,

−f + k1 (x1 − x2 ) + b1 (ẋ1 − ẋ2 ) − k2 (x2 − z) = m2 ẍ2 .

Rearranging the equations into the standard input-output form,

m1 ẍ1 + b1 ẋ1 − b1 ẋ2 + k1 x1 − k1 x2 = f,

m2 ẍ2 − b1 ẋ1 + b1 ẋ2 − k1 x1 + (k1 + k2 )x2 = −f + k2 z,

which can be expressed in second-order matrix form as

[ ][ ] [ ][ ] [ ][ ] [ ][ ]
m1 0 ẍ1 b1 −b1 ẋ1 k1 −k1 x1 1 0 f
+ + =
0 m2 ẍ2 −b1 b1 ẋ2 −k1 k1 + k2 x2 −1 k2 z
27
Stability of an Inverted Pendulum

Determine the dynamic equation of the system below.

For the small value of ϕ the motion of the attachment point of the spring and damper
is approximately horizontal; its displacement is L1 sin ϕ ≈ L1 ϕ and its velocity is
d(L1 sin ϕ)/dt = L1 cos ϕϕ̇ ≈ L1 ϕ̇. (Note: cos ϕ ≈ 1 if ϕ << 1 )

The equation of motion is

J0 ϕ̈ = M0 or mL2 ϕ̈ = mgLϕ − L1 (cL1 ϕ̇) − L1 (kL1 ϕ),

where J0 = mL2 .
28
Stability of an Inverted Pendulum

Then

mL2 ϕ̈ + cL21 ϕ̇ + (kL21 − mgL)ϕ = 0

ϕ̈ + aϕ̇ + bϕ = 0,

where

cL21 kL21 − mgL

a= b=
mL2 mL2

29
Coupled Pendulum System

Two simple pendulums are connected by a

translational spring of stiffness k. Each
pendulum consists of a point mass m
concentrated at the tip of a massless rope
of length L. When θ1 = θ2 = 0, the spring
is at its free length. Derive the equations
of motion, assuming small angles.

We choose the angular displacements θ1 and θ2 as the generalized coordinates.

Assume θ1 > θ2 > 0, which implies that the spring is in tension. The free-body
diagrams are shown below:

About fixed points O1 and O2 , gives

ΣF = ma
−mgL sin θ1 − fk L cos θ1 = mL2 θ̈1 ,
−mgL sin θ2 + fk L cos θ2 = mL2 θ̈2 .

30
Coupled Pendulum System

The spring force fk is in the horizontal direction due to the small-angle assumption,
and its magnitude can be approximated as k(L sin θ1 − L sin θ2 ). We have

ΣM = J θ̈,
mL θ̈1 + kL cos θ1 (sin θ1 − sin θ2 ) + mgL sin θ1 = 0,
2 2

mL2 θ̈2 − kL2 cos θ2 (sin θ1 − sin θ2 ) + mgL sin θ2 = 0.

For small angles, we have

mL2 θ̈1 + kL2 (θ1 − θ2 ) + mgLθ1 = 0,

mL2 θ̈2 − kL2 (θ1 − θ2 ) + mgLθ2 = 0.

31
Lever mechanism

A lever arm has a force applied on one

side and a spring-damper combination on
the other side with a suspended mass.
When θ = 0 and f = 0, the system is at
static equilibrium. Draw the free-body
diagram of the lever arm and the
suspended mass. Derive the differential
equations of motion for small angles θ.

The static equilibrium, for the block, we have

ΣFy = 0 ⇒ kδst − mg = 0, ⇒ kδst = mg,

and for the arm

L L
ΣMo = 0 ⇒ M g − kδst = 0, ⇒ M g = kδst ,
4 4

where δst is the static deformation of the spring.

32
Lever mechanism

When a force f is applied on one side of the rod, the deformation of the spring caused
by the rotation of the rod can be approximated as Lθ/4 for small angels θ. Assuming
that the block and the rod are displaced in their positive directions and Lθ/4 > y > 0,
the spring is in tension and the magnitude of the spring force is ( )
fk = k(Lθ/4 − y + δst ). The magnitude of the damping force is fb = b dt d L
4
cos θ .

33
Lever mechanism
( )
L
ΣFy = macy ⇒ k θ − y + δst − mg = mÿ
4

For the rod (rotation only), applying

( the ) moment equation ΣM = J θ̈ about the fixed
point O gives (cos θ ≈ 1 ⇒ b dtd L
4
sin θ = bL
4
θ̇ )

( )
3L L L L L L
f cos θ + M g cos θ − k θ − y + δst cos θ − b θ̇ cos θ = JO θ̈,
4 4 4 4 4 4

where JO can be obtained using parallel-axis theorem,

( )2
1 L 7
JO = M L2 + M = M L2
12 4 48

For small angular motions, cos θ ≈ 1, we have

kL
mÿ + ky − θ = 0,
4
7 bL 2 kL 2 kL 3f L
M L2 θ̈ + θ̇ + θ− y=
48 16 16 4 4 34
Reference

1. William J. Palm III, ”System Dynamics,2nd edition, McGraw-Hill, 2010

2. Eronini Umez-Eronini, ”System Dynamics & Control”, Brooks/Cole Publishing,

1998

3. Nicolae Lobontiu, ”System Dynamics for Engineering Students”, Academic Press,

2010

4. Ramin S. Esfandiari, and Bei Lu, ”Modeling and Analysis of Dynamic

Systems”,2nd, CRC Press, 2014