https://www.researchgate.
net/profile/Kevin-Achieng
EMM 2301 FLUID MECHANICS I, Fall 2021
Dr. Achieng K., , kevin.achieng@gmail.com
Text: Munson et al.., Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics, 6th ed.
• Bi-Weekly HW, due beginning of class; no late homework
• Three labs
Fluid statics
• Pressure
• Manometry
• Forces on submerged planes
• Buoyancy
• Flotation
What is a Manometer?
1. Simple manometers: U-tube manometer
• consists of a glass tube having the shape of ‘U’
• Pressure in the left limb at XX = P + ρ1gh1 = P + ω1h1
– P is the Pressure head h at the centre of left circular pipe
• Pressure in the right limb at XX = ρ2gh2 = ω2h2
Fig. 2 U-tube manometer
Rules for Writing Equations for Manometers
• Step 1: Draw a neat diagram of a manometer
• Step 2: Consider a suitable datum line XX’.
– It should be in such a manner so that manometer liquid
touching the datum line in the two limbs is the same.
– In figure below, point A and B are on the datum line, liquids
is same in both the columns i.e. left and right limbs.
Rules for Writing Equations for Manometers
• Step 3: Mark the distances of centre of pipe & liquid
level in the vertical column from the datum line X-X’
Rules for Writing Equations for Manometers
• Step 4: Let h in meters is the pressure head in the centre
of pipe.
Rules for Writing Equations for Manometers
• Step 5: Write the equation for pressure head in the left
limb starting from center of pipe.
• Pressure head in left limb at X-X = h + ρ1gh1
Rules for Writing Equations for Manometers
• Where:
– S1 = Specific gravity of liquid for which pressure has to be
determined
– S2 = Specific gravity of manometer liquid (assume mercury)
– Let h be the pressure in terms of height of fluid in the pipe.
– h1 is the distance from the datum line XX’ to the centre of
pipe
– h2 is the height of heavy liquid from the datum line XX’ in the
right limb
Rules for Writing Equations for Manometers
• Step 6: Write the equation for pressure head in the right
limb starting from center of pipe.
• Pressure head in right limb at X-X’ = ρ2gh2
Rules for Writing Equations for Manometers
• Step 7: Equate the pressure heads in the two limbs (left
and right) to get the value of h.
• Equating pressure head at X-X’ as the pressure at datum line
would be equal.
– h + ρ1gh1 = ρ2gh2 or h + S1h1 = S2h2
– h = ρ2gh2 - ρ1gh1 or h = S2h2 - S1h1
Problem 1
• A U-tube monometer is used to measure the
pressure of oil (specific gravity 0.85) flowing
in a pipeline. It’s left end connected to pipe
and right limb is open to the atmosphere. The
centre of pipe is 100 mm below the level of
mercury in the right limb. If the difference of
mercury level in the two line is 160 mm, then
determine the head and pressure.
Problem 1
• A U-tube monometer is used to measure the pressure of oil
(specific gravity 0.85) flowing in a pipeline. It’s left end connected
to pipe and right limb is open to the atmosphere. The centre of pipe
is 100 mm below the level of mercury in the right limb. If the
difference of mercury level in the two line is 160 mm, then
determine the head and pressure.
• DRAW the manometer
100 mm
160 mm
Problem 1
• A U-tube monometer is used to measure the pressure of oil (specific
gravity 0.85) flowing in a pipe line. It’s left end connected to pipe
and right limb is open to the atmosphere. The centre of pipe is 100
mm below the level of mercury in the right limb. If the difference of
mercury level in the two line is 160 mm, then determine the head
and pressure.
• DRAW the manometer
• ℎ1 = 60𝑚𝑚
• ℎ2 = 160𝑚𝑚
100 mm
160 mm
h1
Solution 1
• Pressure head in left limb at X-X’:
𝑃𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑡 = ℎ + 𝑆1 ℎ1
• Pressure head in right limb at X-X’:
– 𝑃𝑅𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 𝑆2 ℎ2
X X’
Solution 1
• 𝑃𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑡 = 𝑃𝑅𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
• ℎ + 𝑆1 ℎ1 = 𝑆2 ℎ2
• ℎ = 𝑆2 ℎ2 − 𝑆1 𝑔ℎ1
• ℎ = 13.6 × 0.16 − 0.85 × 0.06 = 2.125𝑚
• P=ρ𝑔ℎ = 0.85 ∗ 1000 × 9.81 × 2.125
• P= 17719𝑁/𝑚2
• P=17.719 k𝑁/𝑚2
Problem 2
• A U-tube monometer containing mercury was
used to find the negative pressure in the pipe.
The right limb was open to the atmosphere;
find the vacuum pressure in pipe if the
difference of mercury level in two pipes is 100
mm and height of water in the left limb from
the centre of pipe was found to 40 mm
Problem 2
• A U-tube monometer containing mercury was used to find the
negative pressure in the pipe. The right limb was open to the
atmosphere; find the vacuum pressure in pipe if the difference of
mercury level in two pipes is 100 mm and height of water in the left
limb from the centre of pipe was found to 40 mm
• DRAW the manometer
• ℎ1 = 40𝑚𝑚
• ℎ2 = −100𝑚𝑚
40 mm
100 mm
Solution 2
• Pressure head in left limb at X-X’:
𝑃𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑡 = ℎ + 𝑆1 ℎ1
• Pressure head in right limb at X-X’:
– 𝑃𝑅𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 𝑆2 ℎ2
X X’
Solution 2
• 𝑃𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑡 = 𝑃𝑅𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
• ℎ + 𝑆1 ℎ1 = 𝑆2 ℎ2
• ℎ = 𝑆2 ℎ2 − 𝑆1 𝑔ℎ1
• ℎ = 13.6 × −0.1 − 1 × 0.04 = −1.4𝑚
• P=ρ𝑔ℎ = 1000 × 9.81 × −1.4 = −13734𝑁/𝑚2
Hydrostatic Force on plane surface: Simple case
• Simple case: Tank bottom with a uniform pressure
distribution
Hydrostatic Force on plane surface: Simple case
• Simple case: Tank bottom with a uniform pressure
distribution
• 𝑝 − ρ𝑔ℎ = 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 − 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚
• 𝒑 = 𝝆𝒈𝒉
• Resultant Force 𝐹𝑅 = 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 × 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
– 𝐹𝑅 = 𝑝𝐴 where 𝐴 is area of the Tank bottom
• 𝐹𝑅 acts through the Centroid
Hydrostatic Force on plane surface: General case
Let:
• O be the origin (which is at the free surface)
• 𝜃 be the angle the plane makes with the free surface
• y be the directed along the plane surface
• A be the area of the surface
• 𝑑𝐴 be area of the differential element of the surface
• 𝑑𝐹 be the force acting on the differential element
• C be the Centroid
• CP be the center of Pressure
• 𝐹𝑅 is the resultant force acting through CP
Hydrostatic Force on plane surface: General case
differential
element
Hydrostatic Force on plane surface: General case
• What is the force acting on the differential element?
– 𝑑𝐹 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ × 𝑑𝐴
• How else can we express depth of fluid acting on the
inclined surface?
– ℎ = 𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
• What is the resultant force acting on the entire surface?
– 𝐹𝑅 = 𝐹𝑑
– 𝐹𝑅 = 𝑔𝜌 𝐴ℎ 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐴𝑑 𝑦 𝐴 𝜃𝑛𝑖𝑠𝑔𝜌 = 𝐴𝑑 )𝜃𝑛𝑖𝑠𝑦(𝑔𝜌 𝐴
• What is the integral part ( )𝐴𝑑 𝑦 𝐴of the above eqn.?
– First moment of area i.e. 𝐴 𝑐𝑦 = 𝐴𝑑 𝑦 𝐴
– 𝑦𝑐 is the y coordinate to the centroid to the object
– Notice that: 𝑦𝑐 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = ℎ𝑐
Hydrostatic Force on plane surface: General case
• Now, What is the resultant force acting on the entire
surface?
– 𝐹𝑅 = 𝜌𝑔 ∙ 𝑦𝑐 ∙ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝐴 = 𝜌𝑔 ∙ ℎ𝑐 ∙ 𝐴
Hydrostatic Force on plane surface: General case
• Where is the location of the center of Pressure where
the resultant force is acting?
– Moments about the x-axis:
– 𝐹𝑅 𝑦𝑅 = 𝑦 ∙ 𝜃𝑛𝑖𝑠𝑔𝜌 𝐴 = 𝐴𝑑 )𝜃𝑛𝑖𝑠𝑦(𝑔𝜌 ∙ 𝑦 𝐴 = 𝐹𝑑𝑦 𝐴2 𝑑𝐴
– Where: 𝐹𝑅 = 𝜌𝑔 ∙ 𝑦𝑐 ∙ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝐴
– Thus: (𝜌𝑔 ∙ 𝑦𝑐 ∙ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝐴)𝑦𝑅 = 𝑦 ∙ 𝜃𝑛𝑖𝑠𝑔𝜌 𝐴2 𝑑𝐴
𝑦∙𝜃𝑛𝑖𝑠𝑔𝜌 𝐴2 𝑑𝐴 𝑦 𝐴2 𝑑𝐴
– 𝑦𝑅 = =
𝜌𝑔∙𝑦𝑐 ∙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝐴 𝑦𝑐 𝐴
– Notice that 𝑦 𝐴2 𝑑𝐴 is the 2nd moment of inertia 𝐼𝑥
𝐼
– 𝑦𝑅 = 𝑥
𝑦𝑐 𝐴
Hydrostatic Force on plane surface: General case
• Where is the location of the center of Pressure where
the resultant force is acting?
– According to “Parallel Axis Theorem”: 𝐼𝑥 = 𝐼𝑥𝑐 + A𝑦𝑐 2
– Where 𝐼𝑥𝑐 is the 2nd moment of inertia through the centroid
𝐼𝑥 𝐼𝑥𝑐 +A𝑦𝑐 2 𝐼𝑥𝑐
– 𝑦𝑅 = = = +𝑦
𝑦𝑐 𝐴 𝑦𝑐 𝐴 𝑦𝑐 𝐴 𝑐
– Notice: for a submerged plane, the resultant force always act
below the centroid of the plane
Hydrostatic Force on plane surface: General case
• Where is the location of the center of Pressure where
the resultant force is acting?
– Moments about the y-axis:
– 𝐹𝑅 𝑥𝑅 = 𝐴𝑑 )𝜃𝑛𝑖𝑠𝑦 ∙ 𝑥(𝑔𝜌 𝐴 = 𝐹𝑑𝑥 𝐴
– Where: 𝐹𝑅 = 𝜌𝑔 ∙ 𝑦𝑐 ∙ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝐴
– Thus: (𝜌𝑔 ∙ 𝑦𝑐 ∙ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝐴)𝑦𝑅 = 𝑦 ∙ 𝜃𝑛𝑖𝑠𝑔𝜌 𝐴2 𝑑𝐴
𝐴𝑑 )𝜃𝑛𝑖𝑠𝑦∙𝑥(𝑔𝜌 𝐴 𝐴𝑑𝑦𝑥 𝐴
– 𝑥𝑅 = =
𝜌𝑔∙𝑦𝑐 ∙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝐴 𝑦𝑐 𝐴
– Notice that 𝐴𝑑𝑦𝑥 𝐴is the 2nd moment of inertia 𝐼𝑥𝑦
𝐼𝑥𝑦
– 𝑥𝑅 =
𝑦𝑐 𝐴
Hydrostatic Force on plane surface: General case
• Where is the location of the center of Pressure where
the resultant force is acting?
– According to “Parallel Axis Theorem”: 𝐼𝑥𝑦 = 𝐼𝑥𝑦𝑐 + A𝑥𝑐 𝑦𝑐
– Where 𝐼𝑥𝑦𝑐 is the 2nd moment of inertia through the centroid
𝐼𝑥𝑦 𝐼𝑥𝑦𝑐 +A𝑥𝑐 𝑦𝑐 𝐼𝑥𝑦𝑐 A𝑥 𝑦 𝐼𝑥𝑦𝑐
– 𝑥𝑅 = = = + 𝑐 𝑐 = + 𝑥𝑐
𝑦𝑐 𝐴 𝑦𝑐 𝐴 𝑦𝑐 𝐴 𝑦𝑐 𝐴 𝑦𝑐 𝐴
𝐼𝑥𝑦𝑐
– 𝑥𝑅 = + 𝑥𝑐
𝑦𝑐 𝐴
Centroid Coordinates, Areas &
(a) Rectangle
(b) Semi-Circle
Centroid Coordinates, Areas &
(c) Circle
(d) Triangle
What is the pressure on a vertical wall (Using
Hydrostatic Force Method)?
• Pressure varies linearly with depth
• Magnitude of pressure at the wall bottom: 𝑃 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ
• Depth of fluid into the board is ℎ
• Width of the wall is 𝑏
• Resultant force is 𝐹𝑅 = 𝑝𝑎𝑣 𝐴
• Where 𝑝𝑎𝑣 is the average pressure
What is the pressure on a vertical wall (Using
Hydrostatic Force Method)?
• By inspection, the average pressure occurs at ℎ/2
• 𝑝𝑎𝑣 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ/2
ℎ
• Therefore: 𝐹𝑅 = 𝑝𝑎𝑣 𝐴 = 𝜌𝑔 𝐴
2
• The resultant force acts through the center of pressure CP
𝐼𝑥𝑐
• Thus: 𝑦𝑅 = +𝑦𝑐
𝑦𝑐 𝐴
Hence for y-coordinates & triangular geometry:
ℎ 1
𝐴 = 𝑏ℎ; 𝑦𝑐 = ;𝐼 = 𝑏ℎ3
2 𝑥𝑐 12
1 3
𝑏ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ 2
• 𝑦𝑅 = 12
ℎ + = + = ℎ
𝑏ℎ 2 6 2 3
2
𝟐
• 𝒚𝑹 = 𝒉
𝟑
What is the pressure on a vertical wall (Using
Hydrostatic Force Method)?
Hence for x-coordinates & triangular geometry :
𝑏 𝑏
𝐴 = 𝑏ℎ; 𝑦𝑐 = ; 𝑥 = ;𝐼 =0
2 2 𝑥𝑦𝑐
𝐼𝑥𝑦𝑐
• 𝑥𝑅 = + 𝑥𝑐
𝑦𝑐 𝐴
0 𝑏
• 𝑥𝑅 = 𝑏 +
(𝑏ℎ) 2
2
𝑏
• 𝑥𝑅 =
2
• Therefore, center of pressure CP is 𝑥𝑅 , 𝑦𝑅
𝑏 2
• 𝐶𝑃 = , ℎ
2 3
Archimedes Principle, Buoyancy and Flotation
