Chapter wise question list for the final examinations

Chapter 1
1 Mobile Computing Definition - Advantage and Disadvantage
The user of mobile computing environment will be able to access data, information or logical objet from any device in
any network while on a move.

----------------------------------------------------

Mobile Computing benefits - Advantage and Disadvantage

-------------------------------------------

1) Availability - System and its services are available at any time.

2) Location Flexibility - Use of portable device allowed many employees to continue their work, regardless of the
location.
3) Increased Productivity - As MC allows to be available all time, there are higher rates of engagment and productivity.
(Fr eg - Application developed in Android)

- Connectivity using Phone.

4) Cost Effective - As employee can work from their home, --> Overhead cost is low.

For E.g. -> No need of an equipment for an employee- (computer, desk etc.)

Disadvantages-

------------------

1) Connectivity issue- There might be chances, that some area doesn't cover up by the access point and reasonably no
network.

2) Power Consumption - Mobile device doesn;t have enough power to last an entire day, they have to regulary charge
after an suitable discharge.

3) Security - As Mobile device has to work with wireless devices, and wireless device is susceptible to many attacks such
as - Man in the Middle Attack.

2 MCQ - History of Wireless Communication

3 Evolution of Wireless Data - MCQ - Full Forms
LTE - Long Term Evolution

WiMAX - World Wide Interoperability for Micorwave Access.

4G LTE 100-200Mbps

4G WiMax 100-200Mbps

GPRS - General Packet Radio Service

GSM (Global System for Mobile communication

UMTS - Universal Mobile Telecommunication Std.

AMPS- advanced mobile phone system
FDMA- Frequency-division multiple access
GSM- Global System for Mobile Communications
CDMA - Code-division multiple access
TDMA- Time Division Multiple Access
GPRS- General Packet Radio Service
W-CDMA - Wideband Code Division Multiple Access
UMTS- Universal Mobile Telecommunications System
LTE- Long Term Evolution
WiMAX- Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access

4 Types of Mobility
Types of Mobility

--------------------------------------------

1) User Mobility - User should be able to move from one physical location to other with the same device. (E.g.- User
move from london to new york, uses internet to access company's application the same way in london).

4) Device Mobility - User can move from one device to another device and use the same service. (Employee uses
company's desktop at day in company, and uses the laptop at evening in his home for the same service.)

2) Network Mobility - User move from one network to other and uses the same service. (e.g - user move from london to
new york, he uses GPRS in london, and now in new york he uses GSM to access the same service, with the same device).

3) Bearer Mobility - User can move from one bearer to another bearer and using the same servie. (User shift from
london to new york, in london Whatsapp is not supported, to access the service, he can use SMS in newyork)

5) Session Mobility - Restore the services from the Browser.

6) Service Mobility - To write a mail (Service 1), for that you need to open browser (Service 2).

5 Wireless Propagation Mode - Sky, Ground and LOs and NLOs

Different Propogation Modes-

*Guided Media - Wired -- > We will not cover ->

*Unguided Media - Wireless --> We will cover -> Medium - AIR

-> Transport electromagnetic waves without any physical conductor - "Wireless Communication".

In electromagnetic spectrum - ranging from 3Khz - 900Thz is for wireless connection.

3 Propogation mode
-----------------

1) Ground Wave (Below 2Mhz)- Radio wave travel through the lowest portion of the atmosphere.

- Low Frequency signal emnate in all direction from the transmitting antenna and follow the curvature of the planet.

- Distance depends upon the power of the signal (higher the power, larger the signal).

2) Skywave Propogation (2-30Mhz) - Higher frequencies radiates upwards into the ionosphere. (DTH - Direct to Home).

3) Line of Sight (Above 30Mhz) - Very high frequencies , transmit in straight line, directly from antenna to antenna.
Antenna must be directional, facing each other, or either tall enough to not to be affected by the curvature of the earth.

6 Mobile Computing 3 tier Architecture - Presentation, Data, Application

Mobile Computing 3 Tier Architecture

-------------------------------------------------------------

* Presentation Tier - (Tier 1)

1) These application run on the client device and offer all the user interaction.

2) responsible for presenting the information to end user.

3) Includes - Web Browser.

4) Function performed by these agent system ranges from simple task to the difficult one.

- Accessing some other app through HTTP API.

- To access sophisticated application such as realtime sales and inventory management.

5) Application can be used for B2B, B2C, B2E and M2M.

B = Business, C = Customer, E= Employee, M = Machine

* Application Tier - (Tier 2)

Performs business logic of processing user input, obtainig data and making decision.

Performs "Transcoding of data" for appropriate rendering in presentation tier. (Base64 Encode at sender -- Base64
Decode at receiver)

Includes - Java, PHP, ASp.NET, Cold Fusion.

Other Functionalities -

# Rendering
# Network Management {Most of these Functionalities could be access/implemented using "Middleware Software"}

# Security

# Datastore Access

Data Tier (Tier 3) -

Used to store data needed by the application tier and act as a repository for both temporary and permanent Data.

Stored in any form – txt, xml, Relational Database

# Relational Database

# Legacy hierarchical database

# Simple Text File

# XML Format.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

7 Mobile Computing Security (one possible attack you need to derive).

1) User Authentication - It is a process which confirms user's identity, to ensure that user really is who he claims to be.

Authentication Factors -

1.1) Knowledge Factors - (Something user knows) - Password, Passphrase, Personal Identification number (PIN), Secruity
Question.

1.2) Ownership Factors - (Something user has) - ID Card, Security Token, Implanted Device.

1.3) Inherence Factors - (Something user is or does) - DNA sequence, Fingerprint, Voice, Face, Signature, Retinal Pattern.

*1.4) Something you do - typing speed, locational information, Captchas,

Types of Authentication -

1) Single Factor Authentication- User provide only username and password to get authenticat to use any website.

2) Two factor Authentication - Combination of login credentials + something (Could be a PIN), later use to authenticate
yourself.

3) Multi Factor Authentication - Take more than one factor to authenticate ---> Username + password with PIN and with
biometric factor.

4) One Time Password (OTP) - automatic generated alphanumeric character, active for few minutes to use, to
authenticate yourself. Once that OTP is used it is going to be expire and never work.

5) API Authentication - API key Authentication - Google Webmaster - API Key

6) Open Authentication (Login with facebook). -> "Home work"

Security Attacks -
1) BruteForce Attack.

2) Dictionary Attack.

3) Password Sniffing (Wireshark, BRO, NMAP)

4) Man in the Middle Attack (DNS, ARP, Session Hijacking).

(MitM) attack is when an attacker intercepts communications between two parties either to secretly
eavesdrop or modify traffic traveling between the two.

2) User Access Control (Authorization) - allows only those user to connect to network, who are authenticated or
permitted access via network admin.

3) Data Privacy - Ensure the data transmitted over network is completely encrypted and not eavesdrop by unauthorised
person.

HTTPS, SSH, RSA(Anonymous Network) --> Fingerprinting -> Grabbing information from the activity doing over the
internet.

Chapter 2
8 Explain Cellular System with its Advantage and Disadvantage
All devices , instead of connecting to wireless network, they are connecting to cellular network.

Cellular network needs a large amount of area --> geographical area (Cells), to put wide range of infrastructure.
When you combine two or more cells together --> Clusters.

Cellular System uses -- Space divisoning (SDM).

SDM -> How efficiently you put your access point inside the cell to get a good communication.

How efficiently means --> MIMO(Multiple I/O and Multiple O/P), MISO, SISO, SIMO.

Each Transmitter here in Cellular system is known as - "Base Station", this covers a certain area - "cell"

Cell radius can vary from 10m in building, 100m in cities, 1000m/km in countryside.

this hexagon shape is theoretical, it is not the perfect shape, never found in physical presence.

Shape of cells are never perfect, it depends on the environment, whether conditions, sometimes on system loads.

--"Why Towers, and why not powerful transmitters"

Advantages-

1) Higher Capacity-> "Frequency Reuse (FR) -> Due to less number of frequency in the radio band, it is hard for anyone to
allocate a particular f to any particular user.--> Not possible

Instead we use (FR) -> which allows us to reuse the f after a certain conditions.

Allocation of f to large mass, therefore higher capacity.

2) Less Transmission Power ->

3) Local Interfernce -> depends upon the area (cell).

If the cell is large enough, then there is no interference.

however if the cell is small, then there are tower which are transmitting at the same frequency, which leads to the local
interference.

4) Robustness -> Cellular system are decentralize system -> If one antenna gets failed, then this failure only influence
communication of that area only.

Disadvantage ->

1) Infrastructure Needed - Cellular System needed a complex infrastructure such as -> Base Station, Mobile Station,
Switches, Mobile Switching Centre(MSC) and many more, on the top of that we need a geographic area - cell.

2) Handover(Handoff) Needed - When moving from cell to another cell with you call still on, the signal gets lost ---> we
need handover/handoff which is not easy to maintain or handle.

3) Efficient Frequency Planning - To avoid the CCI (Co Channel Interference), using the same frequency, we have to
distribute f very carefully. --> To reduce further interference --> "Sectorized Antenna"

9 Explain Cellular System Component (6 Components).

Cellular System Components -

---------------------------- mobile. base station, air interface standard, db, security machan, gateway----

1) Mobile Station (MS)- Basically a mobile device, that contain a control unit --> transceiver (Tx and Rx) and an antenna
system for data and voice transmission. In GSM, MS consist of ME(Mobile Equipment) and SIM.

2) Air interface standard - there are three main protocols - FDMA, CDMA, TDMA. fct

3) Base Station(BS) - Fixed Station, Consist of radio channel, Tx and Rx on a tower.

4) Database - Used to keep track of information such as billing, caller information, caller location, subscriber data etc.

HLR (Home Location Register) (Permanent DB), VLR(Visitor Location Register)(Temp DB)

5) Security Mechanism - Two types of databases -

EIR (Equipment Identity Register) - >> IMEI -> identifies stolen or fraudulent altered phone.

AUC (Authentication Center) - > Manages actual encryption and verification between sender and receiver.

6) Gateway - Communication link between 2 wired connection or with 2 wired and wireless connection.

Mobile --->Gateway --> Mobile

Mobile ---> Gateway --> Telephone (BSNL) -> PSTN (Public Switched Telephone Network)

10 Explain Frequency Reuse and provide the relevant derivation. ( from the videos)
- The key characteristic of a cellular network is the ability to re-use frequencies to increase
both coverage and capacity
- Many techniques are available for Multiple Access for Users by Reusing or Dividing
Frequencies among users
- Basic Ways of Multiple Access of Frequency:
 FDMA
TDMA
CDMA
- The elements that determine frequency reuse are the reuse distance and the reuse factor.
The reuse distance, D is calculated a
- s D ⁼√3*N

11 Explain Channel Assignment Strategies - 3 strategies.

Channel Assignment Strategies-

------------------------------

1) Fixed Channel assignment

2) dynamic channel assignment

3) handoff assignment

1) Fixed channel assignment -

channels are pre-allocated to different cell.

cell1 - 50Khz, cell2 - 40Khz, cell3 - 60Khz.

Following aspects -

-Any new call attempts in a cell, after all the channels of that cell become occupied. ---> New user is going to be blocked.

- very simple and requires least of processing.

- Problem - New user can't handle

Resolve using -"Borrowing process"

- Cell in this channel is allowed to borrow channel from adjacent cell, if their channels are fully occupied, while adjacent
cell have free channels.

---> Borrowing Process --> can be handle by --> MSC -> Mobile Switching Centre. Big office (main office of BSNL).

MSC -->
a) monitor the process and give permission to borrowing cells, to borrow channel on following aspects -

1) donating cells is not affected by the borrowing process.

2) No interference will occur by moving the channel from one cell to another.

----------------------------------------------

2)Dynamic Channel Assignment Strategy

------------------------------------

- Channels are not pre allocated to any cells.

- Any channel can be allocated to any desired cell during the operation of the system, or if any cell is asking for the
channel.

Following aspects -

1) Each MSC monitors all cells and all channels.

2) Each time a cell request made, a MSC assigns channels to Base station(BS).

3) MSC has some processing algorithms -

Possibility of future blocking in cells.

frequency being used in the cell.

Reuse Distance of the channel.

4) MSC assigns a channel only if it is not used, and if it will not cause co-channel interference with any cell.

5) MSC processing algorithm provides higher capacity --> less blocking.

6)But it requires high computational power.

7) MSC collects real time data of channel occupancy, traffic distribution, RSSI(Radio signal strength indicator).

--------------------------------------------------------

3)Handoff/Handover strategy

---------------

process of transferring and active call from one cell to another cell as the mobile unit moves from first cell to other cell,
without disconnecting the call.

The amount of received power by mobile phone or the amount of received power by tower(acces point), or both are
usually need to determine, whether a handoff is necessary or not.

---------------------------- ***-------------------------------

Chapter 3
12 Explain GSM Architecture - RSS, NSS and OSS.

GSM Architecture

----------------

There are three section of GSM Architecture

a) Radio Subsystem (RSS) (BTS, BCS, TRAU)

b) Network and Switching System (NSS) (MSC, HLR, VLR)

c) Operating Subsystem OSS) (AuC, OMC, EIR)

1) Radio Subsystem - MS + BSC

-----------------------------

- It mainly consist of MS (Mobile Station) - this MS consist of Mobile equipment (ME)(your device) and SIM
(Subscriber Identity Module).

ME --> IMEI

SIM --> IMSI

Base Transceiver System (BTS)

-----------------------------

- It is a radio transceiver system (transmit + receive), within the coverage area of cell.

- It allows MS to commmunicate with the network, through a radio link.

- Transmission and Reception at the BTS with the MS is done via - omnidirectional and directional antenna.

- Major function is to transmit the signal of desired function with a proper format.

---------------------------------------------------------

Base Station Controller (BSC)

- More than one BTS are connected and controlled by one BSC.

- Handles the switchover of a mobile user from one BTS to another BTS during roaming and handoff.

- It also controls the transmitted power.

- It uses Time division multiplexing (TDM) to communicate with BTS.

--------------------------------------------------

Transcoding and Rate Adaptation Unit (TRAU)

---------------------------------------------

It is a logical part of BSC, but resides very close to MSC, to reduce the significant transmission cost.

The most important role of TRAU is to convert the speech from 16Kbps to 64 Kbps over the PSTN or ISDN network.

================================================================

b) Network Switching Subsytem (NSS)

Consist of MSC (Mobile Switching Centre) - has many database HLR(home location register) VLR (visiting location
register),

Mobile Switching Center (MSC)

-Many BSC is going to be handle by one MSC.

- It plays a major role in supporting mobility of a user.

- It controls both switching and management together by controlling the number of BSC to it.

- it also does the registration and authentication of a user and its equipment

- When a request comes, MSC sends the request to the authentication center for the user information and performs
authentication.

- Once authentication done, only then the MSC registers the MS with its associated VLR.

- This information is updated with the HLR, that may reside in the same network.

- It also routes the call from one MSC to other MSC.

- It does the formatiing, if one end is using PSTN and the other end is using ISDN.
Home Location Register(HLR)

- It maintained all the information related to the mobile subscriber in its database.

- The database in HLR remains intact and unchanged until the termination of the subscription.

- HLR is a huge database, located with this home network, which stores the administrative information of the mobile
subscriber - Subscriber current location (give by VLR), type of subscription, IMSI.

Visiting Location Register (VLR)

- This gives the current location of mobile station.

- the database is temporary. , to which the subscriber currently registers.

- it is dynamic in nature, and interacts with HLR when recording the data of particular mobile subscriber.

- If a user under VLR makes a call then VLR precisely knows the position of the user in a single cell.

============================================================

c) Operation Subsystem (OSS)

Consist of AuC (Authentication Center) + EIR (Equipment Identity Register) + OMC (Operating and Management Center)

Authentication Center (AuC) -

- It is a database that stores a copy of secret key that user's SIM card to enable the authentication and encryption over
the radio link.

Operating and Management Centre (OMC) -

Centrally monitors and contrls the network element, for smooth running of the network and guarantee the best possible
"QoS" in the network.

Perform

a) Network Monitoring

b) Network Measurement Network: Monitioring

c) Fault Management Measurment

d) Network Development. Development

Equipment Identity Register (EIR) - IMEI

It stores the IMEI of all valid mobile on the network.

This number checks by the network during a call.

==========================================================================

------------------------------------

13 GSM Address and Identifier - 7 Identifiers.

GSM Address and Idenitifiers.

(IMEI, IMSI, MSISDN, LAI, MSRN, TMSI, LMSI)

----------------------------

GSM distinguishes explicitly between users and equipments, it also distinguishes between subscriber identity and
telephone. To deal with these many address GSM had created their own set of address rules.

a) International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI)

--Every mobile device in the world had a unique identity - IMEI.

-- Allocated by equipment manufacturer and registered by network operator in a secure database known as - EIR
(Equipment Identity Register).

-- *#06# --> To check the IMEI.

b) International Mobile Subscriber Indentity (IMSI)

- when you register with GSM network,,, each subscriber get a unique identity.

- IMSI stored in the SIM, and secured by the network operator.

- Mobile station can only be operated , if you have valid IMSI.

3 decimal digit - Mobile Country Code (MCC) - India - 404.

2 decimal digit - Mobile Network Code (MNC) - Airtel, Delhi - 10.

Maximum 10 decimal digit - Mobile Subscriber Identification Number (MSIN) -

c) Mobile Subscriber ISDN Number (MSISDN)

- Number is the real telephone number - known to external world.

- This number is the public information, whereas the IMSI number is the private to the world.

Country Code (CC) - 1-3 decimal digit- India +91

National Destination Code (NDC) - 2-3 decimal digit - BSNL- 94 and other 98.
 Subscriber Number - Maximum 10 decimal digit.

d) Location Area Identity (LAI)

3 digit country code 404

2 digit mobile network code 94

5 digit location area code. 0011

e) Mobile station roaming number (MSRN)

When a user is roaming to another network, a temporary ISDN number is assigned to the user, it is assigned by the VLR
of the mobile station.

f) Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity (TMSI)

This is a temporary identifier assigned by the VLR. it is temporary store in VLR not in HLR.

Used in the place of IMSI for identification and addressing of MS.

TMSI is never gonna store in HLR, it is temporary store in VLR.

g) Location Mobile Subscriber Identity (LMSI)

Assigned by the VLR, stored also in HLR.

Used in searching and faster access to grab the user.

h) Cell Identifier

Within the Location Area, cell has a unique identity - know as Cell Identifier. (LAI+ CI)

===========================================================

--------------------------------------------------------

14 Call Routing in GSM - MTC and MOC. (Refer the videos)

Call Routing in GSM

Speech --> Digitized/Source Coding --> Channel Coding --> Interleaving --> Burst Formatting ---> Ciphering --> Modulation

------------------------------------------------------------

Receiver

--------------- Modulation <--- Ciphering < --- Burst Formatting < --- Interleaving <--- Channel Coding < --- Digitized Source
Coding <--- Speech
==================================

Mobile Originating Call (MOC) and Mobile Terminating Call (MTC)

Call Routing in GSM-

Speech -> Digitized/Source Coding -> Channel Coding -> Interleaving -> Burst Formatting -> Ciphering -> Modulation.

- Human voice is analog in nature, so we need to convert to digital signal for convienent transferring of information.

a) Speech - its a human voice, which is low frequency signal - Analog.

b) Source Coding - user speech is digitized at 8Khz, sampling rate using Regular pulse excited linear predictive coder
(RPE-LPC) with a long term predictive loop.

Each sample is 13 bit linear PCM(pulse code modulation) value.

This digitized data is passed to the coder, with a frame of 160 samples.

It results into one second of speech compressed into 1625 bytes --> 1625 *8 --> 13000 --> 13Kbps.

c) Channel Coding - For reducing the tranmission error - error detection and error correction.

Gross Bit Rate of GSM - > 22.8 Kbps --> 22,800 bps

or 456 bits every 20ms ,

1 sec = 22800

20 ms = 456 bits

These 456 bits divided into 8 --> 57 bit block.

d) Interleaving -- here the 57 bit block comes and try to reduce the further error. (Explained in paint)

e) Ciphering -> It encrypts the 57 bit block of user data using symmetric key, shared by MS and BTS.

f) Burst Formatting -> Add some binary information to the ciphered block, information could be - sync information,
eqaulization of recevived data.

g) Modulation -> to increase the rate of the signal using high carrier wave --> GMSK ( Guassian Shift Keying)

TDMA and FDMA Needed (In the whole process).

* Mobile Originating Call (MOC).

* Mobile Terminating Call (MTC)

User dial -> PSTN Network , call forward to GMSC gateway msc -> identify HLR:: HLR check num -> request MSRN -> GMS
forward call setup req to MSC indicated by HLR -> 8 current status -> send current status of MS ->

1) User(Friend) dials the phone number of GSM subscriber.

2)The phone gets to PSTN Network(with the help of destination number) gets to know the number belongs to the GSM
network and forward that call to GMSC(Gateway MSC).

3) GMSC identifies the HLR of the subscriber(included in the phone number itself) and signals the particular HLR: The
HLR now checks whether the number exist and whether the user has subscribed the requested service.

4) It will request and MSRN from current VLR.

5,6) VLR will feedback the HLR after getting the MSRN, here HLR will get to know (determine) the MSC responsible for
the MSC: and forwars this information to the GMSC.

7) The GMS can now forwrds the call setup request to the MSC indicated by HLR.

8) It request the current status of the MS from VLR again.

9) VLR will send the current status(location) of the MS,,,, and it the MS is available the MSC intiaites and forward that
call to all BSC+BTS.

10 - end step.) After BSS sends probe to that particular MS, the MS is going to respond to the BSS, and from BSS to MSC.

====================================================================

-----------------------------------------------------------------

** GSM Frequency Allocation ( ** Not that Important)

GSM Frequency Allocation

------------------------

In general GSM uses 900 MHz band, it have 125 duplex channel.

890 - 915 MHz (Uplink) --> Mobile Station to Base Station.

935 - 960 MHz (downlink) --> Base station to Mobile Station.

915 - 890 = 25 MHz Bandwidth

935 - 960 = 25 MHz Bandwidth

- Each way the bandwidth for GSM is 25 MHz.

- Each channel (from 125 channel) will get 200 Khz bandwidth

25*10^6
-------- = 200Khz

125

- ARFCN (Absolute Radio frequency channel number) - denotes a forward and reverse channel pair which is separated by
45 MHz. 935-890 = 45Mhz (separation).

In practical implementation,

a guard band of 100Khz is provided at the upper and lower end of GSM and therefore we only use 124 duplex channel.

Since, 1995, new bands are beed added to the basic 900Mhz.

These bands are 1800Mhz and 1900 Mhz.

1710 - 1785 Mhz (Uplink) --> MS - BS

1805 - 1880 Mhz (downlink) --> BS - MS

This is 3 times as much as primary 900Mhz, it gives 374 duplex channel.

To share bandwidth for multiple user GSM uses combination of TDMA and FDMA (Time division multiple access) and
(Frequency division mutiple access.)

Traffic channel (TCH) is used to carry speech and data traffic.

Traffic channel are defined using 26 frame or multiframe (26 TDMA frame)

15 Explain Authentication and Security - A3, A5 and A8.

Authentication and Security-

---------------------------

Radio medium is open to everyone and anybody can access it.

Anybody can get hold of radio receiver get GSM signal or data.

Therefore there is a need to secure the communication over the wireless radio.

And we will see two phases -

1) Authentication

-> Done to ensure that the user is really the person who claims he is

-> Done using an algorithm known as - A3 Algorithm.

Please Refer the GSM Authentication Diagram from Google - ""

In the figure, the SRES ( Signed Response) sent back to the MSC from the MS as the response to the challege (Request
and Response of SRES).

Using the same set of algorithm, the AuC also generates the SRES.

This SRES from SIM and SRES from AuC is compared --> If the SRES of SIM and AuC are matched or same --> the call is
going to be forwarded to the intended user. Whereas if the SRES doesnt matcht, the call is going to be droppped or
blocked.

2) Encryption and Key Generation

-> For Encryption and decryption - A5 Algorithm

-> For Key Generation - A8 Alogrithm

Please Refer the GSM Key Generation and Encryption Diagram from Google - ""
Here, A8 is the Key Generation Algorithm, which will take Ki(128bit)(individual authentication key) + Random
number(128 bit) and it will shared with MS (SIM) both entities will forward it to the A8 algo, to generate Cipher Key
Kc(64bit).

Thic cipher key + your data on both sides will forward it to A5 Algorithm for the process of encryption and decryption.

--------------------------- ***---------------------------------------------

16 Explain GPRS Architecture - SGSN and GGSN.

GPRS - General Packet Radio Service - It is used for 2.5 + 3 Generation for data transmission.

The architecture of GPRS is quite similar to GSM architecture, the minute change is instead MSC we have SGSN and
GGSN

SGSN - Serving GPRS support Node

---------------------------------

Same as MSC in GSM network, MSC the thing it does for voice, here SGSN does for packet data.

Task includes -

* Packet Switching

* Routing and transfer

* Mobility Management

* Authentication

* Charging Function

SGSN send queries to the HLR to obtain the profile data of GPRS subscriber.

GGSN - Gateway GPRS support node

---------------------------------

Same are GMSC in GSM Network.

Act as an interface between GPRS backbone network(source) and external packet data network (receiver).

Same function as a router in wireless LAN.

Converts the GPRS packet coming from SGSN into appropriate packet data protocol(PDP) format, for the data network
such as internet.

In other direction, PDP receivies to GGSN and again it is going to format from the sender's perspective to send it to
SGSN.

GGSN also does the authentication and charging function related to the data transder.

=========================================================================
17 Explain GPRS Network Operation + PLMN Interface
GPRS Network Operation

-----------------------

Three Steps -

1) Attachement and Deattachment Procedure

* In order, to access the GPRS service, MS needs to make it presence known to the network.

* For that it (MS) must register with SGSN of the network, ussually done through GPRS attach.

* The operation establishes a logical link between MS and SGSN.

* For every session the PDP is going to generated and allocates to the user.
2) Mobility Management
* As MS is moving from one area to other, mobility management functions are used to track its location within each
PLMN.
* SGSN communicate with each other to update MS location in the relevant registers.
3) Routing
* This example assumes two intra-PLMN backbone networks of different PLMNs
* An inter PLMN backbone networks connects GSNs of different PLMNs and operators
* We assume that the packet data network is an IP network.

-------------------------------------------------------------------

18 Explain GPRS Application.

GPRS Specific Application -

1) Map - Positioning System (GPS)

2) Browsing - Internet Surfing

3) Chat

4) Multimedia Service

5) Home automation from any remote location*

6) Virtual Private Network

7) Personal Information Management System - (Personal Diary, Address Book, Appointments, Engagements)

8) Job Sheet Dispatch - GPRS can be used to assign and communicate job sheets from office-based staff to mobile field
staff.

9)Unified Messaging - Email, Fax, Voice Mail, SMS, MMS, Pager Messaging

10)Local Advertising.

Chapter 4
19 Requirement of Mobile IP - 4 Requirement - C,T,Sc & E and Security.
Why there is a need of Mobile IP?

Not Possible, Because as soons as you leave your home network, you cannot receiver your packet, because your
computer is configured to that particular network and you cannot move that network.

If you want to establish the Mobile IP --- Several Requirement that need to be satisfy.

1) Compatibilty - Computers running TCP/IP and connected to the Internet is Huge. A new standard(Mobile IP) has to put
and make changes in the network protocol already is use. So, If we want to use Mobile IP, it has to be integrated into the
existing Operating System.

2) Transparency - Mobility should remain 'invisible' for many higher layer protocols and application. So visible thing in
mobile IP - lower bandwidth and some interruption.

3) Scalability and efficiency - Introducing a new mechanism to the internet, must not jeoparadize its efficiency.

Enhancing IP, for mobility must not generate too many new message packet flooding in the network.

As every platform is using Mobility (car, plane, truck) many of them using IP implementation. It is crucial for mobile IP to
be scalable over a large no. of participants in the whole network.

4) Security - Mobility poses many security problem as it is open connection. Minimum requirement - all messages
related to management of mobile IP should be authenticated. IP layer only guaranteed that IP address of the receiver is
correct. There is no way to find the sender. There is a problem of Fake IP address or other attacks.

-----------------------------------------------------------------------

20 Explain the entities and terminologies of Mobile IP.

Entities and Terminologies of Mobile IP

#Node, Network, Forigen, COA

-------------------------------------

1) Mobile Node (MN) - It is an end system or router that can change its point of attachment to the internet using Mobile
IP.

2) Correspondent Node (CN) - At least one partner is needed for communication with MN. CN could be sender or
receiver.

3) Home Network - Is the subnet the MN belongs to with respect to its IP address.

4) Foreign Network - It is the current subnet the MN visits, and which is not the home network.

5) Foreign Agent (FA) / Home Agent (HA) - Provide several services to MN, during its visit to the foreign network. This
agent could be a gateway router, it connects differnt network, in our case it is connecting home network and foreign
network.

FA can have Care of Address (COA) acting as tunnel endpoint and forwarding packet to the MN.

6) Care of Address (COA) - defines the current location of MN (Temp IP address).

----------------------------------------------------------------------------

21 Explain the working of mobile IP.

Working of Mobile IP

------------------------

CN - Sender and ////// MN - Receiver

1) A CN node wants to send IP packets to the MN.

One of the requirements of MObile IP was to support hiding the mobility of MN.

CN doesnt know anything about MN current location, so it will send the packet as usual to the IP address of the MN.

Packet has CN - Source Address and MN - Destination Address.

The internet not have any information regarding current location of MN, so it will route the packet to the network of MN
- Home Network.

The HA now intercepts the packet, knowing that MN is currently not in its home network.

2) The packet is not forwarded to the home network, but encapsulated and tunneled to the COA.

A new header is put is front of old IP header, showing the COA as new destination and HN as Source of Encapsulated
Packet.

3) The FA now decapsulate the packet, removes the additional header and fowards teh original packet with CN as source
and MN as destination to the MN.

4) Now MN sends the packet as usual with its own fixed IP address as source and CN address its destination.

-----------------------------------------------------------------

* 22 How does MN discover the Foreign Agent - Agent Advertisment + Agent

Solicitation.
When MN moves from his home network, it is very important for him to find FA, in order to get COA(care of Address -
Temporary Address - to get network and services inside foreign network)without COA it is not possible to use anything
inside foreign network.

How does MN discover the Foreign Agent ?

- Agent Advertisment

- Agent Solicitation

* Agent Advertisment -
FA and HA advertise their presence periodically using this special agent advertisment message. These advertisment
message can be seen as a beacon broadcast into the network subnet. This message is comprises with two things - upper
part of this message is - ICMP(Internet Control Message Protocol) and lower part is mobility extension.

* Agent Solicitation

----------------------

If no agent advertisment are present or in an interval of specific time, and this MN does not get any COA, that MN can
now go for agent solicitation.

MN will here now broadcast with agent solicitation request packet, that I'm in the foregin network, please get me some
FA.

Care must be taken to ensure that these solicitation messages do not flood in the network.

MN can send out three solicitation messages, one per second, as soon as it enters to a new network.

If a MN does not receiver an answer to its solicitation, then it must decrease the rate of solicitation, to avoid flooding.

After these steps, the MN eventually gets FA, and he will get COA from it.

------------------------------------------------------------------------

*23 Explain the registration process of HA - Registration and Registration Request and Reply.
MN Registers with HA.

So, when the MN gets FA, he will get COA (temp IP), there is a need for MN to provide this COA (temp IP) to HA, as any
packet send to MN, first recevied by HA, so if HA doesn't know where my MN is? he is not able to forward any packet
intended to MN, therefore MN has to register with HA, after getting COA from FA.

The main reason of this registration is to inform the HA, the current location, for correct forwarding of packets.

there are two different ways for registering depending on the location of COA.

1) The COA is at FA

2) The COA is Co-located (means it is at HA) - Works similar to DHCP.

COA is at FA --> Registration Request and a corresponding Registration Reply comes from HA.

Registration Request Looks like - (Google Search - Mobile IP Registration Request Packet)

* 24 Explain Encapsulation - Minimal and GRE.

mechanism of taking a packet consisting of packet header and putting data into the data part of a new
packet
- simple method that describes how to take an IP datagram and make it the payload of another IP datagram.
Encapsulation is required because each datagram we intercept and forward needs to be resent over the network to the
device's care-of address.
Home agents and foreign agents support tunneling datagrams using one of the available encapsulation methods (IP in IP
Encapsulation, Minimal Encapsulation, or Generic Routing Encapsulation). Mobile nodes that use a co-located care-of
address can receive tunneled data

- Minimal Encapsulation A minimal forwarding header is defined for datagrams which are not fragmented prior to
encapsulation. Use of this encapsulating method is optional

- Generic Routing Encapsulation (GRE) is a protocol that encapsulates packets in order to route other protocols over IP
networks. GRE is defined by RFC 2784. ... GRE works by encapsulating a payload -- that is, an inner packet that needs to
be delivered to a destination network -- inside an outer IP packet.rams using any encapsulation type.
25 Explain Route Optimization or Triangular Routing.
Route Optimization (Trinangular Routing Problem)

Scenario –

A japenese and a german meet at a location at - Africa.

Both want to use their laptop for exchanging the data, both running mobile IP.

If the japenese send the data packet to german, his computer will send the packet to: the HA of the german. (from africa
to germany) .

The HA of germany now encapsulates the packets and tunnels them to the COA (temp IP) of the german laptop
(Germany to Africa).

Now the german will communicate with Japenese (africa to africa)

Optimization Problem - Although the computers might be only meters away, the packet have to travel around the world.
--> Triangular Routing.

CN -- HA Japense to HA German

HA -- COA/MN Germany to Africa

MN -- CN Africa to Africa

Solution - Optimize the route to inform the CN of the current location, that can be available by the routing table. The CN
can learn the location by caching --> Binding Cache.

Chapter 5
26 Explain Traditional TCP methods - Congestion Control , Slow Start , Fast Retranmission.
Traditional Approach of TCP --

Congestion Control

----------------------

Transport Layer Protcocol - has been designed for fixed network with fix end system.
Data Transmission using: network adapters, fibre optic, special hardware - routers, this hardwares works without
tranmission error.

There might be an issue in software (changing the bits) -- software errors

If a packet on its way from a sender to receiver is lost in a fixed network, so a misconception is we say -- "transmission
error" or could be "software error". However, it is not because of software or hardware error.

The probable reason of a packet loss in a fixed network is because a temporary overload at some point in the
transmission path.

Congestion may appear from time to time , even if you have a very good network configuration.

The packet buffers of a router are filled and the router cannot forward the packets fast enough because of the sum of
the input rates of packet destined for one output link is higher then the capacity of the output link ---> FLow Control.

The only thing a router can do in this situation is to drop the packets. A drop packet is normally lost for the transmission
and recevier will find a gap in teh packet stream. (Gap can be find using sequence number).

1 2 3 4 5 (sender)---> 1 2 3 _(gap)_ 5 (receiver).

Now, the Rx does not directly tell the sender which packet is missing,

-------------------------

How sender will get to know which packet is missed by receiver ?? --?.

So a sender will get the ack of all packets which are received by Rx, in our case 1 2 3 and 5 is been ack by sender, but will
find that there is no ack of 4, and will get to know that 4 packet is missing or lost.

The sender notices the missing ack for the lost packet and assumes the packet is lost due to the congestion.

Retransmitting the packet and continuing the full sending rate (15 mbps) would now be unwise, as this might only
increases the congestion.

In such situation, TCP slows down the transmission rate dramatically.

All other tcp connection experencing the same situation of congestion, and do the same thing as others are following i.e.
--> Slow down. --> so that the congestion is get soon resolved.

This cooperation of TCP connection is internet is one of the reason for its survival today.

Why not UDP ??

UDP has a good throughput, that means it can send teh packet in higher speed as it doesnt has to establish any
connection. --- so it may be resolve the congestion problem.

But,

Let's assume that we convert TCP into UDP, and evveryone is using UDP protocol instead TCP, so for a while it would be
a wiser idea, everyone will get a very good speed, but gradually speed is going to be reduced as everyone is trying UPD
in their network. So UDP also gets congestion.

-------------------------------------------------------------------

Slow Start-

-------------

We can resolve the congestion problem using Slow Start Mechanism.

The sender will always calculate "Congestion Window" for a receiver.

The start size of congestion window is one segment (In Transport Layer - Segmentation).

The sender sends one packet and waits for the ACK from the Rx.

If this ACK arrives, the sender increases the congestion window by one, sender can now send two packets (congestion
window = 2).

After receiving the ACK of two packets, the sender now increases the congestion window by 2.

Every time the sender gets the ACk of the sended packet, it will double the congestion window. This double scheme
makes the congestion window to an exponential growth.

It is too dangerous to double the congestion window each time you reciver ACK, this growth will stop at the congestion
threshold.

As soon as the window reaches teh threshold, tranmission rate becomes linear (by adding only 1) to the congestion
window each time you receive ACK.

The linearity continuous until a time-out at the sender.

In that conditions, TCP drastically drops to 0 and starts sending a single segment again.

Congestion Threshold --> Recevier's Window size or Maximum segment size /2

Fast Retransmit /Fast Recovery

------------------------------

Sender receving continous ACK for the same packet, this informs two things -

a) Rx(Receiver) got all packets upto the ack in sequence.

b) In TCP, Rx sends ACK only if it receives any packtes from Tx(sender).

The gap in the packet stream is not due to severe congestion always, but it could be a simple packet loss due to a
transmission error.

Once it find out by sender, the sender can now retransmit the missing packet before the timer expires - This behavoir is
known as Fast Retransmit.

The recepient of ACK shows that there is no congestion, to justify a slow start. The sender can continue with the current
congestion window, the sender can perform "Fast Recovery" from packet loss or any crash happens.

27 Explain Classical TCP Improvment - Indirect, Snoop, Mobile, Selective and Transaction
Oriented TCP.
Classical TCP improvement-

1) Indirect TCP

2) Snooping TCP

3) Mobile TCP
4) Selective Repeat

5) Transaction Oriented TCP

1) Indirect TCP (I-TCP) -- Please the diagram from internet source.

I-TCP segments a TCP connection into a fixed part and wireless part.

MH (Mobile Host) connected wirelessly with Access Point (AP).

CH (correspondent Host) connected wired with AP.

Standard TCP is used between CH and AP. In teh same way, Wireless TCP is used between MH and AP.

Here, AP can act as proxy, i.e. -> AP will behave here MH for CH, and CH for MH.

This AP can relay data on both sides and act as a proxy.

If CH send packet,the AP will take it and ACK to CH, and later will try to forward these packet to MH.

If MH receives the packet, it ACK the packt to AP.

If packet lost in wireless link, due to transmission error, the CH will notice this, and tries to retransmit it.

Similarly, if MH wants to send packet, the AP will ACK it and tries to forward the packet to CH.

If packet lost in wireless link, the MH will notice this, and immediately retransmit it.

I-TCP Socket and State Migration- Please refer the diagram from internet source.

After the handover of MH to a new FA, the old FA must forward the buffered data to a new FA.

After the registartion to a new FA by MH, this new FA responsibility to inform the old FA, about the current location to
enable packet forwarding.

Sockets and buffer content must migrate to new FA. In socktes, there is a current state of TCP resides - sequence no.,
address, port.

Advantage of I-TCP

-------------------
a) I-TCP doesnot require any change in TCP-IP

b) Due to strict partioning into two parts - wireless and wired, tranmission error on wireless link (higer in magnitude)
cannot propagate to fixed link.

c) Always dangerous to introduce new mechanismn in huge network, different solutions are improvising here, without
jeoparadizing the stability of internet.

d) Partioning into two connection allows use of different transport layer protocol between FA and MH.

Disadvantage of I-TCP

---------------------

a) loss of end-end semantics, if FA gets crashed , never known by CH as he doesnot know about the partioniing.

b) all packets sent by CH, are buffered by FA, and forwarded to MH,

FA removes the packet from the buffer, as soon as he gets ack from MH.

If MH moves from old FA to new FA, it takes a while for old FA to migrate everything to this new FA. During this time,
new packets may arrive in the buffer, all these pkts also have to forwarded to MH, which will take some time --> delay in
the network.

c) FA must be a trusted entity.

------------------------------------------------------------

Snooping TCP (S-TCP)

The problem in I-TCp is an MH never ack to CH, for every packet it receives.

CH will never know about the packet loss.

As FA takes th data from CH, then directly ACK it to CH (which is not good), as CH will always think tht the packet
reached to MH (as CH thinks that FA = MH)

In such case, we have improvided I-TCP to Snooping TCP (please refer the diagram from internet).

Here is snoop TCP, the FA will not directly send the ack to CH, but will buffer (buffering) all data from CH first, then
slowly sends these packts to MH (snooping).

If FA doesn't receive an ACK from MH, withing certain amount of time, CH will assume, that either the packet or ACK
lost, and now FA could retransmit pckt directly from buffer, performing much faster retranmission.

Advanatage of S-TCP

------------------------

a) end - end semantics in I-TCP, if FA crashes, the CH never get to know about this crashing, as FA already ACK all packets
to CH (CH will think that the packets received to MH, but it is not.)

However, in S-TCP, as FA is not directly ACK to CH, it is buffering. So, if FA gets crashed, CH will wait from ACK of the
data, a time-out of ACK, wil trigger the retransmission of packet by CH, hence maintainig end-end semantics.

b) No big changes done on MH or CH, every change has been done on FA.
c) No need to migrate state and socket to new FA, assume buffer data transger to new FA, all will happen automatically,
when time out at CH, it will retransmit to new FA.

d) doesn matter, if this new FA, tries new enhancement or not, if not , then this approach automatically falls back to
standard solution.

Disadvantage of S-TCP

------------------------

a) the quality of isolation, which snooping tcp offers, strongly depends on the quality of wireless link, time out values,
and traffic characteristic. Wireless link exhibits very high delay compared to wired.

b) All effort of snoopping and buffering useless, if certain encryption schemes are not applied.

Mobile-TCP (M-TCP) -- Please refer the diagram from internet source

-------------------------------------

Intention behind this protocol in to,

a) Improve the overall throughput

b) Lower the delay

c) Maintain end-end semantics

d) Efficient Handover (migrating from old FA to new FA)

* Works very similar to I-TCP, it splits connection into two parts.

* Unmodified TCP (Standard TCP) is used on the CH - SH (Supervisory Host) connection.

* While, Optimized TCP is used between SH-MH connection.

* SH responsible for exchangind the data between both part similar to proxy in I-TCP.

* Doest perform the caching/retransmission of data via SH.

* If a packet lost on wireless link, it has to be transmitted by original sender (maintain end to end semantics)

* SH monitors all packet sent to MH and ACK returned from MH.

* If SH doesnt receive an ACK for sometime from MH, it assumes the MH is disconnected.

* SH will choke the sender by setting the sender window size = 0 --> forces the sender to go into persistent mode (it
cannot send the data, or retransmission).

* As soon as, the SH detects the connectivity again, it reopens the window of the sender to the old value.

* The sender can continue sending at full rate.

Advantage of Mobile TCP

* maintaining the end-end semantics, SH doesn't send any ACK itself, but forwards the ACK from MH.
* if the MH is disconnected, avoids the useless retransmission, (as SH makes CH --> persistent mode --> it cannot
transmit or retranmist to MH, till MH gets connectivity again)

* Since, SH doesn't uses any buffer, no need to forward buffer or state or socke to new SH.

Fast Retransmit/Fast Recovery -- refer this as homework

Selective Retransmission --> Computer Network - Data link Layer -- ARQ(Automatic Repeat Request) --> Go Back n ARQ ,
Selective Repeat.

Transmission/Time Out Freezing

-----------------------------

* MH in a car, driving into a tunnel - loses connection. 3 connection

* a user moving into a cell with no capacity left over. No cell capacity

* In this case, the mobile phone system will interrupt the connection. congestion

* In that case, MAC layer infrom TCP layer of an upcoming loss of connection.

* TCP can now stop sending and freezes the current state of its congestion window.

* The reaction of TCP, would be a disconnection after a time out.

* MAC layer already noticed the connection problem, before the connection actually interrupted from TCP.

* MAC layer also knows teh real reason for the interruption and does not assume "congestion" as TCP does.

* If further MAC layer notices interruption earlier enough, it can be informed to MH and CH.

* As soon as MAC layer detects connectivity again, it signals TCP, to resume the operation at exactly teh same point
where it had been forced to stop.

Transaction Oriented TCP

-------------------------

To resolve this overhead, T-TCP combines the packet for connection establishment and connection release with user
data.

1. Explain all the traditional TCP approach to increase the efficiency of TCP.

-Assume an Application running on the mobile host that sends short request to a server from time to time,
which responds with a short messages.
-In this case, if an application requires reliable transport of the packets, it may use TCP.
Using TCP, TCP uses a three way hand-shake to establish the connection.
 -Atleast one additional packet is usually needed for transmission of the request, and requires three more
packets to close the connection via three way handshake.
Atleast one packet -> transmission req, 3 more packets close the connection of 3 way handshake

• But here you can see, just for one data packet, TCP need seven packets altogether (connection establishment +
data + Connection Release). C establish + data + C release
• This is an overhead, think about the case, where GPRS uses TCP then, there are certain delay every time you
access any web service, as web services are based on HTTP &&&&and HTTP based on TCP.
• To resolve this overhead, Transaction-Oriented TCP is developed. T-TCP combines the packet for connection
establishment and connection release with user data packets.
• This reduces the number of packets down to two instead of seven.
• This reduces 7 pactets to 2
(A)- Compare traditional, indirect, snooping and mobile TCP. [8]

1- Indirect TCP (I-TCP).

Mobile Host connected with a wireless link and an access point to the wired internet, where
correspondent node/host resides.
The Access point now terminates the standard TCP connection and act as a proxy
2- Snooping TCP
One of the drawback of I-TCP is the segmentation of single TCP connection into two TCP connections.
This loses original end-end TCP semantic
3- Mobile TCP
When dealing with mobility, dropping of packet due to handover is not only the problem, frequent
disconnection is also one of the problem
Question can be formed like - Explain Indirect TCP with its adv and disadv. *** ( *** very
important).

Chapter 6
What is Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) [6]
Wireless application protocol (WAP) is an application environment and set of communication protocols for wireless
devices designed to enable manufacturer-, vendor-, and technology independent access to the Internet and advanced
telephony services.
Wireless Application Protocol or WAP helps in accessing wireless data through all the communication networks. It is a
communication protocol and helps maintain the connection of mobile devices in the network and the internet.
28 Explain WAP architecture

WAP - Wireless Application Protocol --> GSM-800, GSM-1800, GSM-1900, 2G and 2.5G and 3G.
WAP Forum develops standards for application deployment over wireless devices like PDA, mobile phone.
WAP is based on layered architecture, very similar to that of OSI layer.
These layers consist of:
a) Wireless Application Environment (WAE) -- Application Layer
b) Wireless Session Protocol (WSP) -- Session Layer
c) Wireless Transaction Protocol (WTP) --
d) Wireless Transport Layer Security (WTLS) -- Transport Layer
e) Wireless Datagram Protocol (WDP) -- Network Layer
29 Explain WAE and its logical components. (Wireless application environment )
Please refer the WAE logical Model, -- take it from internet.
The primary objective of WAE is to provide an inter operable environment to build services in wireless space.

The wap request from the browser (user agent) is routed through a wap gateway.

The gateway acts as an intermediary node between client and network throgh a wireless last mile (GSM, GPRS, CDMA).

The gateway also does encoding and decoding of the wap request and wap response from client to the server and vice
versa.

The purpose of encoding and decoding is to minimize the size of data transfer over the air.

The major elements of the WAE logical model.

a) WAE user agent - User facing client software (Browser). User agents are integrated into the wap architecture. They
interpret the network content via a URL. WAE also includes user agents for two primary standard content Encoded
wml and compile wmlscript.

b) Content Generators - Application on origin servers that extract standard content in response to request from user
agent.

c) Standard content encoding - a set of well-defined content encoding, allowing a wae user agent to navigate web
content. --> Base64, utf-8, this is work of gateway.

30 Explain WDP
Wireless Datagram Protocol (WDP)

--------------------------

Service capabale of carrying the data.

WDP offers source and destination port numbers with address for multiplexing and demultiplexing of data.

The service primitive (function) to send the datagram is -> TDUnitData.req consist of attributes -> SA, DA, SP, DP and
User data (UD). (both services consist of SA, SP, UD)

The other service primitive used in WDP is - TDunitdata.ind (consist of SA,SP,UD) --> indicates the reception of the data.
If a higher layer request a service WDP cannot fulfil,, error is indicated with the help of another service primitive -->
TDError.ind (Error Code). --> this indicates the reason for the error.

if any error happens when WDP datagram are sent from one WDP to another WDP entity, WCMP (Wireless Control
Message Protocol) provides error handling. --> very similar to that of ICMP.

Typical Message :

a) Destination Unreachable

b) Parameter Problem (could be an error in packet header)

c) Reassembly failure

d) Echo Request and Reply (Ping)

31 Explain WTP with its Class 0, Class 1 and Class 2 diagrams.

32 Explain WTLS
WTLS - Wireless Transport Layer Security

----------------------------------------

WTLS can provide different levels of security such as - Privacy, Data Integrity, Authentication, but it is also used for low
end devices such as - low bandwidth, high-delay networks.

WTLS also supports - datagram and connection oriented transport layer protocols --> that means he can also use -
optimized handshaking between initiator and responder.

WTLS with opitmized hanshaking -- will establish secure session between client and server.

So if initiator and responders wants to create a secure session then,

Initiator client will send a service primitive - SEC-create.req with attributes {SA,SP,DA,DP,KES,CS,CM}.

Chapter 7
33 Explain Adhoc network with its adv and disad and with its usage.
An ad hoc network is a temporary type of Local Area Network (LAN). If you set up an ad hoc network permanently, it
becomes a LAN.
An ad hoc network is one that is spontaneously formed when devices connect and communicate with each other.
The term ad hoc is a Latin word that literally means "for this," implying improvised or impromptu.
Ad hoc networks are mostly wireless local area networks (LANs).
The devices communicate with each other directly instead of relying on a base station or access points as in wireless
LANs for data transfer co-ordination.
Each device participates in routing activity, by determining the route using the routing algorithm and forwarding data to
other devices via this route.
Types of adhoc:
1- VANET (vehicular ad hoc network): communication between vehicles takes place using this. Ad hoc technologies and
AI are used by intelligent VANETs for establishing communication during emergency
2- MANET (mobile ad hoc network): mobile devices ad hoc network
3- SPAN (Smartphone ad hoc network): ad hoc wireless network developed on smartphones using present technologies
such as Bluetooth and Wi-Fi
4- Wireless mesh network: ad hoc network having direct communication between several nodes for relaying information
all through the network
5- Wireless sensor network: everything is collected by these sensors from pressure and temperature readings to levels
of humidity and noise. It can deliver information forming ad hoc network to home base without establishing direct
connection with it
6- Ad hoc network for disaster relief: these networks are also significant in case of disaster for establishing
communication when functioning of hardware is not proper.
advantages of ad hoc network
 Provide access to internet at all times in most locations.
 It is simple to set up a connection to the the internet.
 Allow users to work in places outside office.
 Open Wi-Fi allows users to connect to the internet without using their data allowance.
Disadvantages of ad hoc network :
 Ad-hoc networks are slower than traditional networks. ...
 They are usually less secure due to commonly using wireless connections (which are less secure than wired
ones) and there is no central device for managing the security of the network.
Usage of ad hoc network :
1- Instant Infrastructure --> Unplanned meetings, spontaneous Interpersonal communication --> cannot rely on
any infrastructure --> why not ?? is because, infrastructure network takes too much time to set up -- and
therefore we use ad hoc network.
2- Disaster Relief --> typically breaks down the network, in such situation we can use ad hoc network.
3- Remote Areas --> Sometimes it is too expensive to set up an infrastructure in unpopulated area, depending
on the communication pattern, we can establish ad hoc network or satellite communication can be a solution.
4- Effectiveness --> Services provided by existing infrastructure might be too expensive for certain application.
For example --> An application sends only small status information every other minute, it would be too
expensive if uses infrastructure network.
5- Gaming via ad hoc network
34 Explain MANET with its adv and disadv
MANET --> Mobile ad-hoc networking

----------------------------------

mobile IP and DHCP handles the connection of mobile device to a fixed infrastructure.

It also comprises mobile router too.

mobile device can be connected directly with a infrastrucute using mobile IP for mobility and DHCP for IP address.

Another possibility, mobile device can be connected directly to a mobile router for an ad hoc network (without any
infrastructure).

Advantages of MANET

--------------------

a) Independence from central network administration

b) Self configuring routers are used, by meaning self configuring --> it knows precisely what to do if any problem persist
--> these devices are intelligent in nature, so if traffic problem comes -> they precisely know where to forward the
packets.

c) Scalable technology as it is simple in nature, many people are using it.

d) Ease of deployment - easy installation of the technology.

e) Reduce the administrative cost - as there is no need of any network admin.

Disadvantages of MANET

----------------------

a) Each node must have a full performance -- they shouldnt be a dumb device

b) Throughput is affected by system loading as the network is open and independent, therefore more number of
audience come and join.

c) Security -- open network

d) Packet loss due to transmission errors and router changes.

e) Reliability requires sufficient numner of available nodes.

35 Explain Routing.
Routing
Basically, routing is used to find the best suitable path from source to receiver and to forward the
packet appropriately.
In a wireless network with infrastructure, cells have been defined. Within a cell, base station can
reach to all mobile nodes without routing, via broadcasting.
However, in case of adhoc network, each node must be able to forward data for other node.

36 Difference between Wired and Adhoc network

1) Asymmetric Link -> Node A receives signals from Node B, but this doesn’t tell anything about the quality of connection
in reverse, i.e. we don’t know any about node B will he receive the signal or not.
B might receive nothing, have a weak link or even have a better link that the reverse direction.

2) Redundant Link – Wired Network, too have redundant link to survive link failure, however there is some redundancy
in wired connection, controlled by network admin – can fix.

In adhoc network, no body control redundancy, there are many redundant links, which can’t be fix (because we can’t
detect the fault).

High redundancy can cause a large computational overhead for routing update.

3) Interference - This interference is generated cause of co-channel interference.

4) Dynamic Topology – the nodes and its characteristic will change according to the above figures (routing figures), This
result in frequent changes in topologies, In adhoc network, if this changes comes up, than it is requires that the routing
table must somehow reflect those frequent changes in the topology.

37 Explain AODV
38 Explain DSDV.
Chpater 8

39 Explain 4G Architecture – WiMAX

The high-level network architecture of LTE is comprised of following three main components:

 The User Equipment (UE).

 The Evolved UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network (E-UTRAN).

 The Evolved Packet Core (EPC).

The evolved packet core communicates with packet data networks in the outside world such as the internet,
private corporate networks or the IP multimedia subsystem. The interfaces between the different parts of the
system are denoted Uu, S1 and SGi as shown below:
The User Equipment (UE)

The internal architecture of the user equipment UE for LTE is identical to the one used by UMTS and GSM
which is actually a Mobile Equipment (ME). The mobile equipment comprised of the following important
modules:

 Mobile Termination (MT) : This handles all the communication functions.

 Terminal Equipment (TE) : This terminates the data streams.

 Universal Integrated Circuit Card (UICC) : This is also known as the SIM card for LTE equipments.
It runs an application known as the Universal Subscriber Identity Module (USIM).

A USIM stores user-specific data very similar to 3G SIM card. This keeps information about the user's phone
number, home network identity and security keys etc.

The E-UTRAN (The access network)

The architecture of evolved UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network (E-UTRAN) has been illustrated below.

The E-UTRAN handles the radio communications between the mobile and the evolved packet core and just has
one component, the evolved base stations, called eNodeB or eNB. Each eNB is a base station that controls the
mobiles in one or more cells. The base station that is communicating with a mobile is known as its serving eNB.

LTE Mobile communicates with just one base station and one cell at a time and there are following two main
functions supported by eNB:

 The eBN sends and receives radio transmissions to all the mobiles using the analogue and digital signal
processing functions of the LTE air interface.

 The eNB controls the low-level operation of all its mobiles, by sending them signalling messages such
as handover commands.
Each eBN connects with the EPC by means of the S1 interface and it can also be connected to nearby base
stations by the X2 interface, which is mainly used for signalling and packet forwarding during handover.

A home eNB (HeNB) is a base station that has been purchased by a user to provide femtocell coverage within
the home. A home eNB belongs to a closed subscriber group (CSG) and can only be accessed by mobiles with a
USIM that also belongs to the closed subscriber group.

The Evolved Packet Core (EPC) (The core network)

The architecture of Evolved Packet Core (EPC) has been illustrated below. There are few more components
which have not been shown in the diagram to keep it simple. These components are like the Earthquake and
Tsunami Warning System (ETWS), the Equipment Identity Register (EIR) and Policy Control and Charging
Rules Function (PCRF).

Below is a brief description of each of the components shown in the above architecture:

 The Home Subscriber Server (HSS) component has been carried forward from UMTS and GSM and is a
central database that contains information about all the network operator's subscribers.

 The Packet Data Network (PDN) Gateway (P-GW) communicates with the outside world ie. packet data
networks PDN, using SGi interface. Each packet data network is identified by an access point name
(APN). The PDN gateway has the same role as the GPRS support node (GGSN) and the serving GPRS
support node (SGSN) with UMTS and GSM.

 The serving gateway (S-GW) acts as a router, and forwards data between the base station and the PDN
gateway.

 The mobility management entity (MME) controls the high-level operation of the mobile by means of
signalling messages and Home Subscriber Server (HSS).

 The Policy Control and Charging Rules Function (PCRF) is a component which is not shown in the
above diagram but it is responsible for policy control decision-making, as well as for controlling the
 flow-based charging functionalities in the Policy Control Enforcement Function (PCEF), which resides
in the P-GW.

The interface between the serving and PDN gateways is known as S5/S8. This has two slightly different
implementations, namely S5 if the two devices are in the same network, and S8 if they are in different networks.

WiMAX {Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access} – 4G.

It is having IEEE standard -> 802.16
The basic WiMAX
standard is 802.16 It is faster than WIFI (75Mbps maximum) and has superior range, of up to31 miles. WiMAX is
designed primarily for data transmission.
Supports Mobile, Fixed and Nomadic Wireless Application.
Expected to provide you -> 75Mbps with NLOS (non-line of sight)
But it provides you speed of Gbps if the connection is in LOS (line of sight)
The principle behind any 4g network is OFDM – Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing.
The bandwidth allocation of WiMAX – 5-20Mhz

40 Explain Challenges and Applications of 4G.

Challenges of 4G / Issue in 4G

 Mobility Management (MM)

MM includes location registration, paging, and handover. MS should be able to access the service at
any possible place. The handoff technique should be designed so that they make efficient use of
network and make sure that handoff is not done that often.

 Congestion Control (CC)

There are two approaches based on the connection you are using – Wired Connection - > Detection and
recovery after the congestion
This thing needs to -> have better flow control mechanism.

Wireless Connection -> Avoidance and prevention of congestion.

This thing needs to -> scheduling techniques (allocation time of station).

 Multiaccess Interface , Timing and Recovery.

  Complexity – error control, digital to analog conversion.
 Issue with another network -> adhoc network, Bluetooth, 802.11b

Application:
1) Multimode software Application
2) Mobile Gaming
3) Real Time Traffic Conditions
4) Low Latency
5) Location Based Service
6) Remote Patient Monitoring System.
7) Online Conferencing
8) Cloud Gaming
9) Google Stadia

41 Explain the priniciple behind WiMAX - OFDM (refer the block diagrams).

).
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) is a digital multi-carrier modulation scheme that extends
the concept of single subcarrier modulation by using multiple subcarriers within the same single channel.
Rather than transmit a high-rate stream of data with a single subcarrier, OFDM makes use of a large number
of closely spaced orthogonal subcarriers that are transmitted in parallel

Two popular methods for using the spread spectrum are frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS)
and direct-sequence spread spectrum (DSSS).
 FHSS DSSS
2.
.

FH systems use a radio carrier that DS systems use a carrier that remains fixed to a
“hops” from frequency to frequency in specific frequency band.
a pattern known to both transmitter
and receiver

A,broad,slice,of,the,bandwidth,spectru The data signal is spread onto a much larger

m,is,divided,into,many,possible,broadc range of frequencies (at a much lower power
ast frequencies. level) using a specific encoding scheme.

Frequencies are randomize Frequency is constant

Data is constant Data are randomize

Resistance to noise Less resistant to noise

Limited throughput (2-3 Mbps @ 2.4 Much higher throughput than FH (11 Mbps)
GHz)

Systm,generate wideband signals Syestem,generate wideband signals controlled by

controlled by commanding the carrier the code is direct carrier,modeulation (direct
frequency,(frequency hopping) sequence)

Frequency- Performance of DS-CDMA systems is

hopping,devices,use,less,power,and,ar usually,better and more reliable.
e,cheaper

What do you mean by term service mobility

3. Explain LTE technology and discuss some of the issues with the technology.
4. What are the different techniques used for increasing the capacity and improving the cellular system? Explain
them in detail.
5. Explain the difference between OFDM and OFDMA?
6. Differentiate between TCP and UDP?

Connection status

Sequencing

Delivery guaranty

Retransmission data

Error checking

Speed

Broadcasting

Optimal use

C status
About data:
Error , Speed, Sequencing,
Delivery, Retransmit,
Broadcasting,
Optimal use

7. Draw only architecture of GPRS.