Mobile Computing

UNIT-I
Introduction: Overview of wireless and mobile infrastructure; Preliminary
concepts on cellular architecture; Design objectives and performance issues;
Radio resource management and interface; Propagation and path loss models;
Channel interference and frequency reuse; Cell splitting; Channel assignment
strategies; Overview of Generations: - 1G to 5G.

Wireless and mobile infrastructure refer to the network of technologies, protocols,

hardware, and software that enable communication over wireless networks,
facilitating mobility and connectivity for various devices. Here's an overview:
Wireless Communication Technologies: These are the fundamental technologies
that enable wireless communication.
They include:
Cellular Networks: Provide connectivity over large geographical areas through
base stations and towers. Examples include 2G, 3G, 4G LTE, and 5G.
 Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity): Enables local area network (LAN) communication
over short distances. Commonly used in homes, businesses, and public spaces.
 Bluetooth: Enables short-range communication between devices, typically
within a range of 10 meters.
 NFC (Near Field Communication): Allows communication between devices
when they're brought into close proximity, usually within a few centimeters.
 Mobile Devices: These are the devices that utilize wireless infrastructure for
communication. They include smartphones, tablets, laptops, wearables, IoT
devices, etc. These devices are equipped with wireless communication
capabilities such as cellular, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and NFC.
Infrastructure Components:
 Base Stations: Transmit and receive signals to and from mobile devices.
They're typically mounted on towers or rooftops and are responsible for
handling communication with mobile devices in their coverage area.
 Wireless Access Points (APs): Provide connectivity to Wi-Fi-enabled devices
within a specific area. They're commonly found in homes, offices, public
spaces, etc.
 Routers and Switches: Manage data traffic within wired and wireless
networks, directing data packets to their intended destinations.
 Network Backbone: High-capacity network infrastructure that connects
different components of the wireless network together, often using fiber optic
cables.
 Satellite Systems: Provide connectivity in remote areas or areas where
terrestrial infrastructure is not feasible.

Protocols and Standards:

 LTE (Long-Term Evolution): A standard for wireless broadband
communication for mobile devices.
 Wi-Fi Standards: Such as 802.11ac, 802.11ax (Wi-Fi 6), and upcoming
standards like 802.11be (Wi-Fi 7).
 Bluetooth Standards: Including Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE).
 GSM, CDMA, UMTS, and other Cellular Standards: These define how
mobile devices communicate with cellular networks.

Security Measures:
 Encryption: Ensures that data transmitted over wireless networks is secure and
cannot be easily intercepted or manipulated.
 Authentication: Verifies the identity of devices and users before granting
access to the network.
 Firewalls and Intrusion Detection Systems: Protect networks from
unauthorized access and malicious attacks.
Management and Optimization:
 Network Management Systems (NMS): Monitor and manage the
performance, security, and configuration of wireless networks.
 Quality of Service (QoS): Ensures that critical applications receive priority
over less important traffic.
 Load Balancing: Distributes network traffic evenly across multiple resources
to optimize performance and prevent congestion.
Emerging Trends:
 5G: The latest generation of cellular networks, offering significantly faster
speeds, lower latency, and increased capacity compared to previous
generations.
 Edge Computing: Processing data closer to the source, reducing latency and
improving performance for mobile applications.
 IoT Connectivity: Integrating a vast array of devices into wireless networks,
enabling applications such as smart homes, smart cities, and industrial IoT.
 AI and Machine Learning: Used for optimizing network performance,
predicting network failures, and enhancing security in wireless and mobile
infrastructure.

Cellular architecture is constituted of the following −

 A network of cells each with a base station.

 A packet switched network for communication between the base stations and
mobile switching centers. 
 The public switched telephone network to connect subscribers to the wider
telephony network

Cellular Configuration

In all cellular systems, land area is divided into a number of cells each with its radio
service. In AMPS the area is large which in digital services, the area is much smaller.
Conventionally cells are hexagonal in shape. Each cell uses a frequency range that
is not used by its adjacent cells. However, frequencies may be reused in non-adjacent
cells.
At the centre of each cell is a base station through which mobile phones and other
mobile devices transmit data and voice.

The following diagram represents the configuration.

Mobile Switching Centres

A mobile switching centre (MSC) is a network switching subsystem of a cellular

phone system. It is also called mobile telephone switching office (MTSO). All base
stations are connected to an MSC.

The functions of MSC are −

 Call set-up and release.

 Routing of calls and messages sent via SMS.
 Managing conference calls and calls on hold.
 Fax services.
 Billing
 Interfacing with other networks like public switched telephone network
(PSTN) and Internet. 
Design objectives and performance issues in mobile infrastructure
Design objectives and performance issues in mobile infrastructure are crucial
considerations in ensuring the reliability, efficiency, and scalability of wireless
networks. Here are the key design objectives and performance issues:
Design Objectives:
 Coverage: Ensure sufficient coverage to serve the intended geographical area,
minimizing dead zones and ensuring seamless connectivity.
 Capacity: Design the network to accommodate a large number of
simultaneous users and devices without significant degradation in
performance.
 Reliability: Ensure high availability and reliability of network services,
minimizing downtime and service interruptions.
 Scalability: Design the infrastructure to easily scale up or down to
accommodate changes in user demand and network growth.
 Security: Implement robust security measures to protect data privacy, prevent
unauthorized access, and defend against cyber threats.
 Quality of Service (QoS): Guarantee satisfactory performance levels for
different types of traffic, prioritizing critical applications such as voice and
video.
  Latency: Minimize latency to ensure real-time responsiveness for interactive
applications like voice calls, video streaming, and online gaming.
 Energy Efficiency: Design energy-efficient protocols and mechanisms to
prolong the battery life of mobile devices and reduce the environmental
impact of network operations.
 Interoperability: Ensure compatibility and interoperability with different
types of devices, networks, and protocols to facilitate seamless roaming and
handover.
 Cost-Effectiveness: Optimize the deployment and operation costs of the
infrastructure while delivering satisfactory performance and user experience.

Performance Issues:
 Congestion: High traffic loads can lead to congestion, resulting in degraded
performance, increased latency, and dropped connections.
 Interference: Interference from other wireless networks, electronic devices, or
physical obstacles can degrade signal quality and impair communication.
 Handover Failures: Inefficient handover between cells or access points can
cause call drops, packet loss, and interruptions in service continuity during
mobility.
 Signal Attenuation: Signal attenuation due to distance, obstacles, or
environmental factors can weaken the signal strength and reduce the coverage
area of the network.
 Security Vulnerabilities: Weaknesses in encryption, authentication, or
authorization mechanisms can expose the network to security breaches, data
theft, and unauthorized access.
 Spectrum Constraints: Limited availability of radio spectrum can restrict the
capacity and performance of wireless networks, especially in densely
populated areas.
 Backhaul Capacity: Inadequate backhaul capacity can bottleneck data traffic
between base stations and the core network, leading to performance
degradation and latency issues.
 Load Imbalance: Non-uniform distribution of traffic across cells or access
points can lead to load imbalance, causing some resources to be underutilized
while others are overloaded.
 What is Mobile Communication????

Communication using Mobile

What is Mobile???

(Portable or Movable things that able to communicate)

Such as Smart Phones, Laptops, Tablets etc.,,

Two aspects of Mobility

 User Mobility(users communicate (wireless) “anytime,

anywhere, with anyone)

Device Portability(devices can be connected anytime,

anywhere to the network)
 Mobile Devices
Pager PDA Laptop/Notebook
• receive only • graphical displays • fully functional
• tiny displays • character recognition • standard applications
• simple text • simplified WWW
messages

Palmtop
Mobile phones
• tiny keyboard
• voice, data
• simple versions
• simple graphical displays
of standard applications
Conventional Mobile System
Limitations of Conventional Mobile System
 Limited Service Capability

 Poor service Performance

 Inefficient Frequency Spectrum utilization

Limited Service Capability

Usually designed by selecting one or more channels from a specific

frequency allocation

Coverage area is maintained as Large as possible

Transmitted Power must be High

No Handoff Capability

Active Users is Limited to the number of channels assigned to a

particular frequency
Poor service performance

 At this time we mainly have 3 main telephone Systems

 MTS (Mobile Telephone Systems) (40 MHz)

 IMTS (Improved MTS)---- MJ System (150 MHz)

 IMTS (Improved MTS)---- MK System (450 MHz)

 Total 33 channels were distributed among these three systems

Must cover 50 miles of Distance in Diameter

FCC( Federal Communication Commission) have to develop new systems which

Goal: Need Minimal Bandwidth but Provide High usage and Consumer
satisfaction

That means Limited assign frequency-- need to serve unlimited users in

unlimited areas

 Single side band (SSB): divides given frequency into max channels

 Cellular Technology: which reuse the allocated frequency in diff areas

 Spread Spectrum or Frequency Hopped: generates many codes over

wide frequency band

These are considered as “ Spectrum Efficiency Considerations”

Hence on Jan 4 1979 , FCC authorized Illinois Bell Telephone company
(IBT) to conduct a Developmental Cellular System in the Chicago Area

American Radio Telephone Service (ARTS) operate Cellular system in

Washington D.C

These give rise to Cellular Mobile Communication….

Cellular Network
Basic Cellular System
1. Mobile units.: A mobile telephone unit contains a control unit, a transceiver,
and an antenna system.

2. Cell site : The cell site provides interface between the MTSO and the mobile
units.
It has a control unit, radio cabinets, antennas, a power plant, and data
terminals.

3. MTSO: The switching office, the central coordinating element for all cell sites,
contains the cellular processor and cellular switch. It interfaces with telephone
company zone offices, controls call processing, and handles billing activities.

4The MTSO is the heart of the cellular mobile system. Its processor
provides central coordination and cellular administration.
Basic Cellular System
 Highlights of the Cellular Communication

Designed to operate over a very large area with a limited bandwidth

 A cellular mobile comms. system uses a large number of low-

power wireless transmitters (100 W or less)

Offers larger capacity through cell splitting

 Variable power levels allow cells to be sized according to

subscriber density& demand within a particular region

As mobile users travel from cell to cell, their Conversations are
handed off between cells

 Channels (frequencies) used in one cell can be reused in another

cell some distance away
  Packet Loss and Jitter: High packet loss and jitter can degrade the quality of
real-time applications such as voice and video, leading to choppy audio/video
and poor user experience.
 Device Diversity: Variability in device capabilities, protocols, and standards
can pose compatibility issues and interoperability challenges, affecting the
overall performance of the network.

Radio resource management and interface

Radio Resource Management (RRM) is the system level management of co-
channel interference, radio resources, and other radio transmission characteristics in
wireless communication systems. The main objective of RRM is to utilize the
limited RF spectrum resources and radio network infrastructure as efficiently as
possible. Several strategies and algorithms are used to control parameters such as
transmit power, user allocation, beamforming, data rates, handover criteria,
modulation scheme, error coding scheme, etc.

RRM addresses multi-user and multi-cell network capacity issues, rather than the
point-to-point channel capacity. This means that it involves resource management
of a large network consisting of several communication towers, several repeaters,
routers and connected devices as a whole rather than individual connections of
wireless devices to the towers. Traditional telecommunications research and
education involve programming the communication channels and source codes with
a single user in mind, but when several users and adjacent base stations share the
same frequency channel it may not be possible to achieve the maximum channel
capacity. RRM is particularly important in systems restricted by co-channel (within
the same channel) interference rather than by external noise. For instance, cellular
systems and broadcast networks simultaneously covering large areas and wireless
networks consisting of many adjacent access points reuse the same channel
frequencies and may produce interferences for each other in the same channel.

RRM also helps to maintain the spectral efficiency of the network within a budget.
The cost for deploying a wireless network normally consists of base station site costs
(real estate costs, planning, maintenance, distribution network, energy, etc.) and
sometimes also by frequency license fees. RRM also maximizes the system spectral
efficiency under some kind of user fairness constraint or grade of network quality so
that the network quality doesn't drop below a certain level for the users in pursuit of
achieving maximum efficiency.
While classical radio resource management primarily considered the allocation of
time and frequency resources (with fixed spatial reuse patterns), recent multi-user
MIMO techniques enable adaptive resource management in the spatial domain also.
Various Types of RRM:
Static radio resource management
Static RRM involves manual as well as computer-aided fixed cell planning or radio
network planning. Static RRM schemes are used in many traditional wireless
systems, for example - 1G and 2G cellular systems and also in today's wireless local
area networks and non-cellular systems, for example - broadcasting systems.

Dynamic radio resource management

Dynamic RRM schemes adaptively adjust the radio network parameters to the traffic
load, user positions, user mobility, quality of service requirements, base station
density, etc. Dynamic RRM schemes are designed mainly to minimize expensive
manual cell planning and implement stricter frequency reuse patterns to improve
system spectral efficiency. Efficient dynamic RRM schemes may increase the
system spectral efficiency by an order of magnitude, which often is considerably
more than what is possible by introducing advanced channel coding and source
coding schemes.
Inter-cell radio resource management
Future networks, like the LTE and 5G standards, are designed in a way such that
they reuse frequencies. In such networks, neighboring cells use the same frequency
spectrum. Such standards use Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA) modulation
and can thus be highly efficient in terms of spectrum but require close coordination
between cells to avoid excessive inter-cell interference. In most cellular system
deployments, the overall system spectral efficiency is not limited by range or noise
but by interference. Inter-cell RRM coordinates resource allocation between
different cell sites by using multi-user MIMO techniques. There are other various
inter-cell interference coordination (ICIC) techniques also defined in the standards
of these dynamic single-frequency networks like coordinated scheduling, multi-site
MIMO or joint multi-cell precoding which are used in inter-cell RRM.

Propagation and path loss models play a crucial role in understanding how wireless
signals propagate through various environments in mobile computing. These models
help predict signal strength, coverage areas, and potential obstacles or interferences
in wireless communication systems. Here's an overview of propagation and path loss
models commonly used in mobile computing:

1. Free Space Path Loss (FSPL) Model:

Assumes ideal conditions with no obstacles or interference.
Describes the loss of signal strength as it propagates through free space.
2. Two-Ray Ground Reflection Model:
Accounts for reflection from the ground in addition to the direct path.
Particularly relevant in outdoor environments with a clear line of sight to the ground.
The received signal strength includes contributions from both the direct and reflected
paths.
3. Log-Distance Path Loss Model:
Based on empirical observations that signal strength decays logarithmically with
distance.
4. Okumura-Hata Model:
Empirical model developed for urban environments.
Takes into account factors such as frequency, base station height, mobile terminal
height, and urban environment characteristics.
Provides separate path loss predictions for urban, suburban, and rural areas.

5. COST 231 Hata Model:

Extension of the Hata model, primarily used in Europe.
Incorporates additional factors such as frequency and building height.
6. ITU-R P.528 Model:
Developed by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) for predicting path
loss in various environments.
Considers terrain profile, frequency, and antenna heights.
7. Ray Tracing and Ray Launching Models:
Provide detailed simulations of signal propagation by tracing individual rays and
considering reflection, diffraction, and scattering effects.
Require detailed knowledge of the environment and complex computational
resources but offer high accuracy.
8. Statistical Models:
Capture variations in signal strength due to fading, shadowing, and multipath
propagation.
Examples include Rayleigh fading model for flat fading and Rician fading model for
multipath with a dominant line-of-sight component.

In mobile computing, channel interference and frequency reuse are critical

considerations in designing efficient wireless communication systems. Let's delve
into each concept:

1. Channel Interference:
Channel interference occurs when multiple signals interfere with each other,
degrading the quality of communication. It can be categorized into two main types:

a. Co-Channel Interference:
Arises when signals transmitted on the same channel interfere with each other.
Common in cellular networks where multiple base stations use the same frequency
channels in neighboring cells.
Co-channel interference reduces signal quality, data throughput, and overall system
capacity.
b. Adjacent Channel Interference:
Occurs when signals transmitted on adjacent frequency channels interfere with each
other.
Can be caused by imperfect filtering in transmitters or receivers.
Adjacent channel interference can degrade signal quality, especially in narrow-
bandwidth systems.

The reasons behind Co-channel interference are:

 Bad weather condition
 Poor frequency planning
Ways we can reduce co-channel interference in cellular communication are:
 Proper planning and implementation.
 The frequency reuse technique increases overall system capacity.

2. Frequency Reuse:
Frequency reuse is a technique used to mitigate interference and maximize spectral
efficiency in wireless communication systems. It involves dividing the available
frequency spectrum into multiple smaller frequency bands and allocating these
bands to different cells or geographical areas. Key aspects of frequency reuse
include:
a. Cell Layout:
Cellular networks are divided into cells, each served by a base station (eNodeB in
LTE, gNodeB in 5G).
Cells are typically arranged in a hexagonal grid pattern to minimize interference and
provide uniform coverage.
b. Frequency Planning:In frequency reuse, the available frequency spectrum
is divided into a set of frequency channels.
Cells in adjacent geographic areas are assigned different sets of frequency channels
to minimize interference.
The reuse distance, also known as the cell radius, determines the minimum distance
between cells using the same frequency channels.
c. Reuse Patterns:
Frequency reuse patterns dictate how frequency channels are allocated to cells
within a cellular network.
Common reuse patterns include the regular reuse pattern (also known as the 7-cell
reuse pattern) and the fractional reuse pattern.
The choice of reuse pattern depends on factors such as cell size, traffic density, and
interference constraints.
Benefits of Frequency Reuse:
 Interference Mitigation: By allocating different frequency channels to
adjacent cells, frequency reuse reduces both co-channel and adjacent channel
interference.

 Increased Capacity: Efficient frequency reuse allows for more users to be

served within the same spectrum, increasing the overall system capacity.

 Improved Coverage: Frequency reuse helps ensure uniform coverage across

the cellular network, minimizing coverage gaps and improving the quality of
service for users.

Challenges:
 Interference Management: Despite frequency reuse, interference may still
occur, especially at cell boundaries or in areas with high traffic density.
 Coordination: Effective frequency planning and management require
coordination among neighboring cells and base stations to optimize frequency
allocation and minimize interference.
Cell Splitting and Cell Sectoring

With the growing number of mobile users, it is important for the cellular capacity to
also keep growing to meet the needs of the users. In this article, we will look at some
of the capacity-increasing methods in cellular networks.
Figuratively speaking there are broadly two ways to increase the channel capacity:
1. The new addition of channels
2. Borrowing of frequency
Both of the above two methods will also lead to an increase in cost along with
capacity. Two distinct approaches we use in the modern day to increase channel
capacity are Cell Splitting and Cell Sectoring. We will discuss them in detail below.
Cell Splitting
Cell Splitting is the process of subdividing a cell into smaller cells each with its own
Base Station. On splitting, new cells with smaller radius are added called microcells.
Each new cell created is independent and has reduced antenna height and transmitter
power. The creation of new smaller cells increases the capacity of the system as a
whole. Cell Splitting increases the frequency reuse factor. A higher frequency reuse
factor increases the capacity of the cellular system in Cell Splitting.
Advantages
 Increases the capacity of the channel considerably.
 Enhances dependability of cellular networks.
 Increases the frequency reuse factor.
 Increases signal-to-noise (SNR) ratio.
 Reduces interference.
 Disadvantages

For each individual cell, an individual base station is required so a huge number of
base stations are needed in this process.
 Handoff occurs frequently.
 Assigning channels is difficult
 Cell Sectoring
Cells are divided into a number of wedge-shaped sectors, each with its own set of
channels. By wedge-shaped we mean that the cells are divided at an angle of 120°
or 60°. These sectored cells are called microcells. Like Cell Splitting, it also helps
in increasing channel capacity and decreases channel interference. 3 or 6 sectors are
created from a given cell. But unlike Cell Splitting, here the cell radius does not
change after sectoring the cells although the co-channel reuse ratio has decreased. It
increases system performance by using a directional antenna.
Cell Sectoring
Advantages
 Sectoring increases the signal-to-interference ratio which means the cluster
size gets reduced.
 Reduces interference without altering the system performance.
 Increases channel capacity without necessarily changing the cell radius.
 Increases frequency reuse by reducing the number of cells in the cluster.
 Assigning a channel is easier.
Disadvantages
 Increases the number of antennas per base station.
 It decreases efficiency as sectoring reduces the channel groups.
 Excessive interference leads to traffic loss.
 The number of handoffs increases as the working area of the cell decreases in
Cell Sectoring.
Generations of wireless communication:
We have made very huge improvements in wireless communication and
have expanded the capabilities of our wireless communication system.
We all have seen various generations in our life. Let’s discuss them one
by one.

0th Generation:
 Pre-cell phone mobile telephony technology, such as radio telephones
some had in cars before the arrival of cell phones.
 Communication was possible through voice only.
 These mobile telephones were usually mounted in cars or trucks.
1G (1st Generation):
 First-time calling was introduced in mobile systems.
 It used analog signals.
 It used an FDD scheme and typically allocated a bandwidth of 25 Mhz.
 The coverage area was small.
 No roaming support between various operators.
 Low sound quality.
 Speed:- 2.4 kbps.
2G (2nd Generation) : Shifted from analog to digital.
 It supported voice and SMS both.
 Supported all 4 sectors of the wireless industry namely Digital cellular,
Mobile Data, PCS, WLAN,
 Moderate mobile data service.
 2G WLAN provided a high data rate & large area coverage.
 Speed:- 64 kbps.
2.5G came after 2G which used the concept of GPRS. Streaming was also
introduced and mail services too. Then came 2.75G or EDGE which was
faster in providing services than 2.5G. It gave faster internet speed up to
128kbps and also used edge connection.
3G (3rd Generation) :
 The Internet system was improved.
 Better system and capacity.
 Offers high-speed wireless internet.
 The connection used was UMTS and WCMA.
 Speed:- 2mbps.
4G (4th Generation) :
 IP-based protocols.
 LTE (Long term evaluation) was mainly for the internet.
 Vo-LTE (Voice over LTE) is for both voice and the internet.
 Freedom and flexibility to select any desired service with reasonable
QoS.
 High usability.
 Supports multimedia service at a low transmission cost.
 HD Quality Streaming.
 Speed:-100mbps.
5G (5th Generation): It is yet to come in many countries but here are
some notable points about 5G.
 Higher data rates.
 Connectivity will be more fast and more secure,
 Data Latency will be reduced to a great level.
 Massive network capacity.
 It is 30 times faster than 4G.
 There would be more flexibility in the network.

Comparison of the data transfer speeds for each generation:

 2G: Data speeds were typically in the range of kilobits per second
(Kbps). It provided basic data services like text messaging (SMS)
and limited internet access.
 3G: Data speeds improved to the range of megabits per second
(Mbps). It allowed for better internet browsing, email access, and
basic video streaming.
 4G: Data speeds increased further to the range of tens of megabits
per second (Mbps) to hundreds of megabits per second (Mbps). This
enabled seamless HD video streaming, online gaming, and faster
downloads/uploads.
 5G: Data speeds in 5G Networks can range from hundreds of
megabits per second (Mbps) to multiple gigabits per second (Gbps).
5G's ultra-fast speeds enable applications like 8K video streaming,
real-time virtual and augmented reality experiences, and super-fast
downloads of large files.
 What is the Shape of Cell & Why???
In cellular system Geographical area is divided into cells

Then what will be the shape of Cell???

Criteria:
Geometrical shape
No overlapping & No Gaps
Maximum Area
Frequency Reuse Concept