1. What is the meaning of "Mobile Computing"? Explain device mobility and device portability.

2. What are the different applications of mobile communications? Illustrate with suitable examples.
3. What are the advantages and disadvantages of wireless communication?
4. Can you explain the simplified reference model of mobile communication? Provide a brief explanation
of all the layers in the context of mobile communication.
5. What are the features of mobile equipment connected to the GSM network?
6. What is WiMAX? What services are offered by WiMAX? Illustrate with suitable examples.
7. How does the architecture of WLL work? Provide an example.
8. What is the basic structure of cellular telephony? Use appropriate examples or illustrations.
9. What is frequency reuse? Why is it done? What is the reuse factor?
10. What is an antenna? Explain radiation patterns with suitable illustrations.
11. What is signal propagation? Explain with suitable illustrations.
12. What are the different propagation effects? Provide appropriate illustrations.
13. What is the purpose of multiplexing techniques? What are the different types of multiplexing
techniques used in communication?
14. Can you explain FDM with a suitable example?
15. What is CDM? Explain with suitable illustrations.
16. What is digital modulation? Why is it required? What are the different types of digital modulation
techniques used?
17. Explain ASK, FSK, PSK, QPSK, and QAM with appropriate illustrations.
18. What is advanced frequency shift keying? Explain with appropriate illustrations.
19. What is the multi-carrier modulation OFDM technique? Why is the OFDM technique preferred in
mobile communication? Provide appropriate illustrations.
20. What is the spread spectrum technique? Explain FHSS and DSSS with appropriate illustrations.
21. What are the benefits of DSSS?
22. What are the basic differences between circuit-switched and packet-switched networks?
23. What is Signalling System 7 (SS-7)? Explain with an example.
24. Can you explain the IP-based SS-7 protocol stack? Why is it necessary?
25. What are the purposes of IP-based SS-7 SGW and MGW?
26. What is the hidden terminal problem? Explain with appropriate illustrations.
27. What is the exposed terminal problem? Explain with appropriate illustrations.
28. What is the MACAW protocol? How does it mitigate the exposed and hidden terminal problems?
Provide appropriate examples.
29. What is CSMA/CA? Why is it necessary for wireless communication? Draw a flowchart to explain the
CSMA/CA protocol.
30. What is controlled access? Explain the polling and reservation techniques.
31. Can you explain the GSM architecture with appropriate illustrations?
32. How do HLR and VLR work?
33. What are the key features of GSM?
34. What is the functionality of BTS?
35. What is the functionality of BSC/MSC?
36. What is EIR? Why is it an important database maintained by the Mobile Switching Centres?
37. Why are the Internetworking Function (IWF) and International Switching Centre (ISC) used in GSM?
1. What is the meaning of "Mobile Computing"? Explain device mobility and device portability.

Mobile computing refers to the use of portable computing devices (such as smartphones, tablets, laptops)
that can connect to wireless networks and perform various tasks traditionally done on desktop computers,
enabling users to access information, communicate, and perform tasks while on the move.

Device Mobility

Device mobility refers to the ability of a device to maintain seamless connectivity and functionality while
moving through different environments.

 Characteristics:
o Continuous Connectivity: The device stays connected to networks (Wi-Fi, cellular) while moving.
o Session Persistence: Applications and services continue to operate without interruption as the
device changes location.
o Adaptability: The device can adapt to varying network conditions and handovers between different
types of networks.
 Examples:
o A smartphone maintaining a voice call or data session while moving from one cell tower to another.

Device Portability

Device portability refers to the ease with which a device can be carried and used in different locations. It
focuses on the physical characteristics and design of the device.

 Characteristics:
o Lightweight: The device is light enough to be easily carried.
o Compact Size: The device is small enough to fit in a bag, pocket, or be worn.
o Battery Operated: The device can operate without a constant power supply, relying on battery
power.
 Examples:
o A laptop that can be carried in a backpack and used in various locations like a café, office, or park.

2. Mobile communications have a wide range of applications across various fields. Here are some key
applications, along with suitable examples:

1. Personal Communication:
o Example: Voice calls, text messaging (SMS), and instant messaging apps (e.g., WhatsApp,
Facebook Messenger) allow people to stay connected with friends and family.
2. Business Communication:
o Example: Email and collaboration tools (e.g., Microsoft Teams, Slack) enable professionals
to communicate and collaborate remotely, enhancing productivity and flexibility.
3. Internet Access:
o Example: Smartphones and tablets provide access to web browsing, social media platforms
(e.g., Facebook, Twitter), and streaming services (e.g., Netflix, YouTube).
4. Navigation and Location-Based Services:
o Example: GPS-enabled apps like Google Maps and Waze offer real-time navigation, traffic
updates, and location-based recommendations for restaurants, hotels, and other services.
5. Mobile Banking and Financial Services:
o Example: Mobile banking apps (e.g., PayPal, Venmo, banking apps from institutions like
Chase or Bank of America) allow users to perform financial transactions, pay bills, and
transfer money from their mobile devices.
 6. Healthcare:
o Example: Telemedicine apps (e.g., Teladoc, Doctor on Demand) allow patients to consult
with healthcare providers remotely. Fitness apps (e.g., MyFitnessPal, Fitbit) help users track
their health and fitness metrics.
7. Education:
o Example: E-learning platforms (e.g., Coursera, Khan Academy) and educational apps (e.g.,
Duolingo, Quizlet) enable users to learn new skills and access educational content from
anywhere.
8. Entertainment:
o Example: Mobile games (e.g., Candy Crush, PUBG Mobile) and streaming apps (e.g.,
Spotify for music, Netflix for video) provide on-the-go entertainment.

3. What are the advantages and disadvantages of wireless communication?

Wireless communication offers several advantages and disadvantages:

Advantages:

1. Mobility: Users can access information or communicate from anywhere within the coverage area
without being tethered to a specific location.
2. Convenience: Wireless devices are easy to set up and use, reducing the need for complex
infrastructure like cables and connectors.
3. Flexibility: Wireless networks can be easily expanded or reconfigured compared to wired networks,
making them more adaptable to changing needs.
4. Cost savings: Initial setup costs may be lower since there's no need to lay down extensive cables or
wires.
5. Scalability: It's easier to add new devices to a wireless network without the physical limitations of
cables.
6. Accessibility: Remote or rural areas can access communication networks without the need for
extensive physical infrastructure.
7. Integration: Wireless technology can be integrated with other devices and technologies such as IoT
(Internet of Things) devices and smart home systems.

Disadvantages:

1. Interference: Wireless signals can be prone to interference from other devices or physical obstacles
like walls, leading to reduced signal quality or dropped connections.
2. Security: Wireless networks are more vulnerable to unauthorized access compared to wired
networks, necessitating stronger security measures like encryption.
3. Speed: Wired connections generally offer faster data transfer rates than wireless, especially in
scenarios where high bandwidth is required.
4. Reliability: Wireless networks may experience reliability issues due to signal loss, weather
conditions, or electronic interference.
5. Coverage: Wireless signals have limited range depending on the technology used, which can restrict
the coverage area compared to wired networks.
6. Compatibility: Compatibility issues can arise with different wireless standards or between older and
newer devices.
7. Health concerns: There are ongoing debates about potential health risks associated with long-term
exposure to wireless radiation.
 4. Can you explain the simplified reference model of mobile communication? Provide a brief
explanation of all the layers in the context of mobile communication.

The above figure shows a personal digital assistant (PDA) which provides an example for a wireless
and portable device. This Personal digital assistant communicates with a base station in the middle of
the picture. The base station consists of a radio transceiver (receiver and sender) and an interworking
unit connecting the wireless link with the fixed link. The communication partner of the Personal Digital
Assistant, a conventional computer, is shown on the right hand side. Under earth each network
element (such as PDA, interworking unit, computer), the figure shows the protocol
stack implemented in the system according to the reference model.

Physical layer
This is the lowest layer in a communication system and is responsible for the conversion of a stream
of bits into signals that are transmitted on the sender side. The physical layer of the receiver
transforms the signals back into a bit stream. For wireless communication, the physical layer is
responsible for generation of the carrier frequency, frequency selection, signal detection (although
heavy interference may disturb the signal), modulation of data into a carrier frequency and
encryption.

Data link layer

The main tasks of the data link layer include accessing the medium, multiplexing of different data
streams, correction of transmission errors and synchronization (i.e. detection of a data frame). In
short, the data link layer is responsible for a reliable point to point connection between two devices
or a point to multipoint connection between one sender and several receivers.

Network layer
The third layer which is called network layer is responsible for routing packets through network or
establishing a connection between two entities over many other intermediate systems. Some topics
are addressing, routing, device location, and handover between different networks. The several
solutions for the network layer protocol of the internet (the Internet Protocol IP).
Transport layer
Transport layer is used in the reference model to establish an end to end connection. Topics like
quality of service, flow and congestion control are relevant, especially if the transport protocols
known from the internet, TCP and UDP, are to be used over a wireless link.

Application layer
The applications (complemented by additional layers that can support applications) are situated on
top of all transmission oriented layers. Some context on this layer are service location, support for
multimedia applications, adaptive applications that can handle the variations in transmission
characteristics, and wireless access to the World Wide Web using a portable device. Most demanding
applications are video (high data rate) and interactive gaming (low jitter, low latency).

5. What are the features of mobile equipment connected to the GSM network?

Mobile equipment connected to the GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications) network typically
has several key features:

1. Subscriber Identity Module (SIM): GSM mobile devices use SIM cards to authenticate users on
the network and store subscriber information.
2. Radio Interface: GSM devices operate on specific radio frequencies and use GSM modulation
techniques for transmitting and receiving signals.
3. Voice and Data Services: GSM supports both voice calls and data services (such as SMS messaging
and GPRS for internet connectivity).
4. International Roaming: GSM networks facilitate international roaming, allowing users to use their
mobile devices in different countries with compatible networks.
5. Security: GSM provides encryption and authentication mechanisms to ensure secure communication
between the mobile device and the network.
6. Handover and Cell Selection: GSM devices support seamless handover between different cell sites
(base stations) to maintain connectivity while moving.
7. Compatibility: GSM devices adhere to the GSM standard, ensuring compatibility with networks
globally that support GSM technology.
8. Battery Efficiency: GSM devices are designed to be energy-efficient to prolong battery life, crucial
for mobile use.
9. Network Services: GSM supports various network services such as call forwarding, call waiting,
conference calling, and caller ID.
10. SIM Toolkit (STK): Some GSM devices support the SIM Toolkit, which allows additional
applications to be installed and executed on the SIM card itself.

These features collectively enable GSM mobile equipment to provide reliable voice and data communication
services to users across diverse geographical locations served by GSM networks worldwide.

6. What is WiMAX? What services are offered by WiMAX? Illustrate with suitable examples

WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access) is a wireless broadband technology based on
the IEEE 802.16 standard. It provides high-speed internet access over long distances, offering both fixed and
mobile deployment options.
Services Offered by WiMAX:

1. Broadband Internet Access: Provides high-speed internet in areas lacking traditional wired
infrastructure, ideal for rural and temporary deployments.
2. VoIP and Telephony: Supports Voice over IP (VoIP) services, enabling voice calls over the
internet, often bundled with data plans.
3. Video Surveillance: Facilitates wireless video surveillance systems for security in urban or remote
areas.
4. Public Safety Networks: Enables reliable communication channels for emergency responders.
5. Enterprise Connectivity: Provides secure and fast connections between offices or remote sites,
enhancing business operations.

Examples:

 Clearwire: Deployed WiMAX networks in the U.S. for widespread broadband access.
 Fixed Wireless ISPs: Utilize WiMAX to serve rural and underserved areas globally.
 Mobile WiMAX Networks: Used in countries like South Korea and Japan for mobile broadband
services.

WiMAX's flexibility and speed make it a valuable option where traditional wired solutions are impractical
or costly to deploy.

7. How does the architecture of WLL work? Provide an example.

WLL Architecture:
The Wireless Local Loop (WLL) architecture replaces traditional copper wires with
wireless links, connecting subscribers to the local central office. It consists of several
components, including the PSTN (Public Switched Telephone Network), Switch
Function, WANU (Wireless Access Network Unit), and WASU (Wireless Access
Subscriber Unit).
The PSTN serves as a circuit-switched network, while the Switch Function manages
connections between WANUs. The WANU takes care of authentication, operation,
routing, and data transmission, whereas the WASU is installed at the subscriber’s
location. With its cost-effectiveness, enhanced security through digital encryption,
scalability options, and various features like internet access, voice services, data
transfer capabilities, and fax services – WLL proves to be a dependable solution for
telecommunication requirements specifically in remote or rural areas.
WLL components:
1. PSTN: It is Public Switched Telephone Network which is a circuit switched
network. It is a collection of world’s interconnected circuit switched telephone
networks.
2. Switch Function: Switch Function switches the PSTN among various WANUs.
3. WANU: It is short for Wireless Access Network Unit. It is present at the local
exchange office. All local WASUs are connected to it. Its functions includes:
Authentication, Operation & maintenance, Routing, Transceiving voice and data. It
consists of following sub-components:
 Transceiver: It transmits/receives data.
 WLL Controller: It controls the wireless local loop component with WASU.
 AM: It is short for Access Manager. It is responsible for authentication.
 HLR: It is short for Home Location Register. It stores the details of all local
WASUs.
4. WASU: It is short for Wireless Access Subscriber Units. It is present at the house
of the subscriber. It connects the subscriber to WANU and the power supply for it is
provided locally.

Example Scenario:

 In a rural area, WLL is deployed to provide cost-effective telecommunications where laying

traditional landlines is impractical or expensive.
 Subscribers use CPEs to connect regular telephones or computers, accessing services through a
wireless link to the central Base Station.

8.What is the basic structure of cellular telephony? Use appropriate examples or illustrations.

Cellular telephony operates on a structured framework known as the cellular network, which divides
geographic regions into smaller areas called cells. Each cell is served by a base station that communicates
with mobile devices within that cell. Here’s the basic structure of cellular telephony:

Basic Structure of Cellular Telephony:

1. Cells:
o Definition: Geographic areas divided into smaller cells, each with its own base station.
o Purpose: Cells enable the efficient use of radio frequencies and allow for seamless handovers as
mobile devices move between cells.
2. Base Stations:
o Role: Base stations (also known as cell towers or base transceiver stations) provide wireless coverage
within each cell.
o Function: They transmit and receive radio signals to and from mobile devices within their coverage
area.
3. Mobile Switching Center (MSC):
o Central Hub: MSCs are central components that manage calls and mobility within the cellular
network.
 o Functions: They route calls between mobile devices within the same network or to external
networks (like landlines or other mobile networks).
4. Network Elements:
o Home Location Register (HLR): Stores subscriber information such as phone numbers, service
profiles, and current location information.
o Visitor Location Register (VLR): Temporarily stores subscriber information when they are roaming in
another network’s area.
o Authentication Center (AUC): Provides authentication and encryption services to ensure secure
communications.
o Equipment Identity Register (EIR): Manages a database of mobile device identities to prevent
unauthorized device usage.

Illustration of Cellular Telephony Structure:

Example Scenario:

 User Movement: A mobile user moves from one cell (served by Base Station A) to another cell (served by
Base Station B).
 Handover: As the user moves, the network ensures seamless handover of the call from Base Station A to
Base Station B without interrupting the call quality.
 Network Management: MSCs manage the call routing and ensure that the call reaches its destination
efficiently, whether to another mobile user within the same network or to a landline.

Benefits of Cellular Telephony Structure:

 Coverage and Capacity: Cells enable efficient use of radio frequencies and provide uniform coverage across
large geographic areas.
 Mobility: Users can move between cells without losing connectivity, thanks to seamless handover
mechanisms.
 Scalability: Cellular networks can expand by adding more cells and base stations to accommodate increasing
numbers of users.

9.What is frequency reuse? Why is it done? What is the reuse factor?

Frequency Reuse
Frequency reuse is a fundamental concept in cellular network design that involves the repeated use of the
same frequency channels within a cellular system. This concept allows for efficient use of the available
spectrum by dividing a service area into multiple smaller regions called cells, each with its own base station.
Each cell can use the same set of frequencies, provided the cells using the same frequencies are sufficiently
spaced apart to avoid interference.

Why Frequency Reuse is Done

Frequency reuse is implemented for several key reasons:

1. Increased Capacity: By reusing frequencies across different cells, a cellular network can support
more users than if each frequency could only be used once. This increases the overall capacity of the
network.
2. Efficient Spectrum Utilization: The available spectrum is a limited resource. Frequency reuse
allows for more efficient use of this spectrum, enabling a greater number of communications within
the same bandwidth.
3. Enhanced Coverage: By deploying multiple cells, network coverage can be extended to cover larger
geographic areas, including rural and urban locations.
4. Improved Quality of Service: Properly managed frequency reuse can help to minimize interference
and improve the quality of service for users by ensuring that the same frequencies are not used by
adjacent cells.

Reuse Factor

The reuse factor, also known as the frequency reuse factor, is a measure of how often the same frequency is
used within the cellular network. It is defined as:

Reuse Factor =1/N

Where N is the number of cells in a cluster that use different frequencies to avoid interference with each
other. The reuse factor indicates the fraction of the available spectrum that can be reused in other cells
within the network.

 Reuse Factor = 1: Indicates that every cell can use the same set of frequencies (e.g., no frequency
planning or reuse).
 Reuse Factor = 1/N: Indicates that a frequency set is reused once every N cells.

For example, in a cluster with 7 cells (N=7) each using a different set of frequencies, the reuse factor would
be:

Reuse Factor = 1/7

An antenna is a metallic structure that is used to transmit radio EM waves. We can define it as the
launching of waves or radiations in space, which is efficiently accomplished with dielectric structures
called antennas. An antenna acts as a transducer that converts the electrical power into EM waves.
The electric charges are the source of the EM or electromagnetic waves.

10.What is an antenna? Explain radiation patterns with suitable illustrations

The transmitting antenna carries the electric current, converts it into the form of radiation, and
transmits it into space. The Antenna can be used as a transmitting antenna or the receiving
antenna.

The antenna uses voltage and current from the source (transmission line) to launch Electromagnetic
waves into the particular medium.

Radiation Pattern
A radiation pattern refers to the spatial distribution of the electromagnetic energy emitted by an antenna. It's a visual
representation of how strongly the antenna radiates in different directions. Understanding radiation patterns is
crucial in antenna design and deployment for various applications, such as radio communication, radar, and wireless
networking.

Types of Radiation Patterns:

There are three main types of radiation patterns, each with its own characteristics and applications:

1. Omnidirectional Pattern:
o This pattern radiates energy almost equally in all horizontal directions, resembling a
doughnut shape in 3D or a figure-eight shape in 2D plots.
o Applications: Wi-Fi routers, cell phone base stations (for covering a local area).

Omnidirectional Radiation Pattern

2. Directional Pattern:
o This pattern concentrates energy in a specific direction, often resembling a lobe or beam
shape.
o Applications: Satellite communication dishes, directional Wi-Fi antennas (for long-range
connections).
 Directional Radiation Pattern

3. Bi-directional Pattern:
o This pattern radiates energy primarily in two opposite directions, often resembling a
cloverleaf shape in 3D or a double-lobed shape in 2D plots.
o Applications: Yagi antennas (for point-to-point communication).

Bidirectional Radiation Pattern

Importance of Radiation Patterns:

Understanding radiation patterns helps in:

 Optimizing antenna performance: Choosing the right antenna for the application based on its
directionality and coverage needs.
 Minimizing interference: Directing antenna radiation towards desired areas and reducing
interference with other devices.
 Effective signal transmission and reception: Ensuring strong enough signals reach the intended
receivers.

What is signal propagation? Explain with suitable illustrations

Signal propagation refers to the transfer of information-carrying signals through a medium. It's the fundamental
concept behind numerous technologies critical to modern communication, from wireless networks to satellite
communication.
Propagation Modes:

Signals travel in two primary modes:

 Guided Propagation: Here, the signal follows a well-defined path within a medium. This is akin to
sending a message through a dedicated wire, similar to electrical signals in cables.
o Example: Light signals in fiber optic cables.

 Unguided Propagation: This mode involves signals traversing open spaces like air or interstellar
medium. There are many type of unguided propagation here we discuss thee..

1. Reflection:
o Example: TV signals bouncing off buildings or mountains.
o Explanation: Waves change direction when they encounter a surface.
2. Diffraction:
o Example: Radio signals bending around hills.
o Explanation: Waves bend around obstacles and spread out.
3. Scattering:
o Example: Radio signals scattering due to atmospheric particles.
o Explanation: Waves spread in different directions when encountering small objects.

Significance of Signal Propagation:

Understanding signal propagation is crucial for developing efficient communication technologies:

 Enhanced Cellular Communication: Knowledge of signal propagation aids in designing cell phone
towers and networks that guarantee strong and clear connections across vast distances.
 Reliable Wi-Fi Networks: By understanding signal diffraction and attenuation, Wi-Fi routers can be
strategically placed to provide consistent and strong coverage within a building.
 Effective Space Communication: Sending messages to and from spacecraft millions of kilometers
away necessitates a thorough understanding of how signals propagate through the vast emptiness of
space.

13. What is the purpose of multiplexing techniques? What are the different types of multiplexing
techniques used in communication?

Purpose of Multiplexing Techniques

Multiplexing techniques are used in communication systems to maximize the utilization of available
bandwidth by allowing multiple signals to share a single transmission medium. This improves efficiency,
reduces costs, and increases the capacity of the communication system. Key purposes include:

1. Efficient Use of Resources: Allows multiple signals to be combined and transmitted over a single
medium, making better use of available bandwidth.
2. Cost Reduction: Reduces the need for multiple physical connections by enabling the use of a single
transmission path for multiple signals.
3. Increased Capacity: Enhances the overall capacity of the communication system, allowing more
data to be transmitted simultaneously.
4. Flexibility: Supports various types of data (voice, video, data) to be transmitted together.
What is Multiplexing?
Multiplexing is the sharing of a medium or bandwidth. It is the process in which
multiple signals coming from multiple sources are combined and transmitted over a
single communication/physical line.

Types of Multiplexing
There are Five types of Multiplexing :
1. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
2. Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM)
3. Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)
4. Code-division multiplexing (CDM)
5. Space-division multiplexing (SDM):

1. Frequency Division Multiplexing :

Frequency division multiplexing is defined as a type of multiplexing where
the bandwidth of a single physical medium is divided into a number of
smaller, independent frequency channels.

Example: Frequency Division Multiplexing is used in radio and television

transmission.
In FDM, we can observe a lot of inter-channel cross-talk, due to the fact that in this
type of multiplexing the bandwidth is divided into frequency channels. In order to
prevent the inter-channel cross talk, unused strips of bandwidth must be placed
between each channel. These unused strips between each channel are known as
guard bands.
2. Time Division Multiplexing :
Time-division multiplexing is defined as a type of multiplexing wherein FDM, instead
of sharing a portion of the bandwidth in the form of channels, in TDM, time is shared.
Each connection occupies a portion of time in the link.
In Time Division Multiplexing, all signals operate with the same frequency (bandwidth)
at different times.

There are two types of Time Division Multiplexing :

1. Synchronous Time Division Multiplexing
2. Statistical (or Asynchronous) Time Division Multiplexing
Synchronous TDM :
Synchronous TDM is a type of Time Division Multiplexing where the input frame
already has a slot in the output frame. Time slots are grouped into frames. One frame
consists of one cycle of time slots.
Statistical TDM :
Statistical TDM is a type of Time Division Multiplexing where the output frame collects
data from the input frame till it is full, not leaving an empty slot like in Synchronous
TDM.
In statistical TDM, we need to include the address of each particular data in the slot
that is being sent to the output frame.

3. Wavelength Division Multiplexing :

Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) is a multiplexing technology used to
increase the capacity of optical fiber by transmitting multiple optical signals
simultaneously over a single optical fiber, each with a different wavelength. Each
signal is carried on a different wavelength of light, and the resulting signals are
combined onto a single optical fiber for transmission. At the receiving end, the signals
are separated by their wavelengths, demultiplexed and routed to their respective
destinations.
WDM can be divided into two categories: Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing
(DWDM) and Coarse Wavelength Division Multiplexing (CWDM).
Example: Optical fibre Communications use the WDM technique, to merge different
wavelengths into a single light for the communication.

4. Space-division multiplexing (SDM) :

Space Division Multiplexing (SDM) is a technique used in wireless communication
systems to increase the capacity of the system by exploiting the physical separation
of users.
In SDM, multiple antennas are used at both the transmitter and receiver ends to
create parallel communication channels. These channels are independent of each
other, which allows for multiple users to transmit data simultaneously in the same
frequency band without interference. The capacity of the system can be increased by
adding more antennas, which creates more independent channels.
Example: SDM is commonly used in wireless communication systems such as
cellular networks, Wi-Fi, and satellite communication systems.

5. Code-division multiplexing (CDM) :

Code division multiplexing (CDM) is a technique used in telecommunications to allow
multiple users to transmit data simultaneously over a single communication channel.
In CDM, each user is assigned a unique code that is used to modulate their signal.
The modulated signals are then combined and transmitted over the same channel. At
the receiving end, each user’s signal is demodulated using their unique code to
retrieve their original data.
Example: CDM is commonly used in wireless communication systems such as
cellular networks and satellite communication systems.
14. Can you explain FDM with a suitable example?
15. What is CDM? Explain with suitable illustrations.
16. What is digital modulation? Why is it required? What are the different types of digital modulation
techniques used?

What is Digital Modulation?

Digital modulation involves encoding digital information onto an analog carrier signal by varying its
properties (amplitude, frequency, or phase) to facilitate transmission over analog communication channels.

Why is Digital Modulation Required?

Digital modulation is essential because it:

1. Enables efficient use of bandwidth for transmitting digital data over analog media.
2. Enhances noise immunity and reduces error rates.
3. Allows multiplexing of multiple signals over the same channel.
4. Supports error detection and correction.
5. Ensures compatibility with digital systems.
There are mainly three types of Digital Modulation techniques. They are:
 Amplitude Shift Keying
 Frequency Shift Keying
 Phase Shift Keying
Amplitude Shift Keying
In Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK), each symbol in the message signal gives a unique
amplitude to the carrier wave. There are two types of ASK, Binary and M-ary. In Binary
ASK, logic 1 is associated with certain amplitude of carrier wave e.g. 12V and logic 0 is
associated with different amplitude other than 12V e.g. 0V. In M-ary ASK, a group of
log2M bits are considered together rather than 1 bit at a time and the amplitude level is
associated with this group of bits.
For example, in 16-ary ASK, a group of 4 bits are considered and are given a
respective amplitude. Since there are 16 possible 4 bit binary numbers (24), 16
different amplitude levels are required for modulation. If all such amplitudes are
created using a single carrier wave, then it is called as coherent ASK. If multiple
carrier wave each with different amplitudes are used for modulation then it is called as
non-coherent ASK.

Amplitude Shift Keying Waveform

Block Diagram of Amplitude Shift Keying

Given Below is the Block Diagram of Amplitude Shift Keying

Block Diagram of Amplitude Shift Keying

The analog message signal is converted to digital signal using Analog to Digital
Converter. This digital signal is then passed to a multiplier which takes two inputs. A
sine wave with high frequency is considered as carrier signal and is multiplied with the
digital signal. When symbol present in the digital signal m(t) gets multiplied with the
carrier Asin(2πft+p) it results in m(t)Asin(2πft+p).
When m(t) is high, the carrier wave is passed as it is. But when m(t) is logic 0, then the
result of multiplication is 0. Hence ASK wave is generated. However this ASK wave
contains abrupt changes in amplitude which causes unnecessary high bandwidth
usage. Hence this signal is passed through Band Pass Filter which limits the bandwidth
usage.
For demodulating, the ASK wave is passed through a multiplier again where the carrier
wave is multiplied again which results in m(t)Asin2(2πft+p). This signal is passed
through Low Pass Filter where the original digital message is received. This digital
signal is converted to analog wave using Digital to Analog Converter.
Frequency Shift Keying
In Frequency Shift Keying (FSK), each symbol in the message signal gives a unique
frequency to the carrier wave. There are two types of FSK, Binary and M-ary. In Binary
FSK, logic 1 is associated with certain frequency of carrier wave e.g. 50MHz and logic
0 is associated with different frequency other than 50MHz e.g. 25MHz. In M-ary FSK, a
group of log2M bits are considered together rather than 1 bit at a time and the frequency
is associated with this group of bits.
For example, in 16-ary FSK, a group of 4 bits are considered and are given a respective
frequency. Since there are 16 possible 4 bit binary numbers (24), 16 different
frequencies are required for modulation. If all such frequencies are created using a
single carrier wave, then it is called as coherent FSK. If multiple carrier wave each with
different frequencies are used for modulation then it is called as non-coherent FSK.

Frequency Shift Keying Waveform

Block Diagram of Frequency Shift Keying

Given Below is the Block Diagram of Frequency Shift Keying
 Block Diagram of Frequency Shift Keying

The analog message signal is converted to digital signal using Analog to Digital
Converter. This digital signal is then passed to two multipliers which takes two inputs
each. A sine wave with frequency f1 is considered as carrier signal for logic 1 and a sine
wave with frequency f2 is considered as carrier signal for logic 0. These carrier waves
are multiplied with the digital message signal. When logic 1 present in the digital signal
gets multiplied with the carrier Asin(2πf1t+p) it results in Asin(2πf1t+p) only since the
other multiplier gets logic 0 as input since it is passed through a NOT gate.
When logic 0 present in the digital signal gets multiplied with the carrier Asin(2πf2t+p)
it results in Asin(2πf2t+p) only since the multiplier gets logic 1 as input since it is passed
through a NOT gate. Both this signals are added to form FSK wave
A[sin(2πf1t+p)+sin(2πf2t+p)]. However this FSK wave contains abrupt changes in
frequency which causes unnecessary high bandwidth usage. Hence this signal is
passed through Band Pass Filter which limits the bandwidth usage.
For demodulating, the FSK wave is passed through two multipliers again where their
respective carrier waves are multiplied again. This signal is passed through two Band
Pass Filters out of which the top BPF allows f1 frequency to pass if logic is 1 and the
bottom allows f2 frequency to pass if logic is 0. The output of both BPF is compared with
each other where the output of the comparator is high if output of BPF1 is greater than
output of BPF2 and is low if output of BPF2 is greater than output of BPF1. Hence a
digital signal is received at the output of the comparator. This digital signal is converted
to analog wave using Digital to Analog Converter.
Phase Shift Keying
In Phase Shift Keying (PSK), each symbol in the message signal gives a unique phase
shift to the carrier wave. There are two types of PSK, Binary and M-ary. In Binary PSK,
logic 1 is associated with certain phase shift of carrier wave e.g. 90° and logic 0 is
associated with different phase shift other than 90° e.g. 0°. In M-ary PSK, a group of
log2M bits are considered together rather than 1 bit at a time and the phase shift is
associated with this group of bits.
For example, in 16-ary PSK, a group of 4 bits are considered and are given a respective
phase shift. Since there are 16 possible 4 bit binary numbers (24), 16 different phase
shifts are required for modulation. If all such phase shifts are created using a single
carrier wave, then it is called as coherent PSK. If multiple carrier wave each with
different phase shifts are used for modulation then it is called as non-coherent PSK.

Phase Shift Keying Waveform

Block Diagram of Phase Shift Keying

Given Below is the Block Diagram of Phase Shift Keying

Block Diagram of Phase Shift Keying

The analog message signal is converted to digital signal using Analog to Digital
Converter. This digital signal is then passed to two multipliers which takes two inputs
each. A sine wave with phase shift p1 is considered as carrier signal for logic 1 and a
sine wave with phase shift p2 is considered as carrier signal for logic 0. These carrier
waves are multiplied with the digital message signal. When logic 1 present in the
digital signal gets multiplied with the carrier Asin(2πft+p1) it results in Asin(2πft+p1)
only since the other multiplier gets logic 0 as input since it is passed through a NOT
gate.
When logic 0 present in the digital signal gets multiplied with the carrier Asin(2πft+p2)
it results in Asin(2πft+p2) only since the multiplier gets logic 1 as input since it is passed
through a NOT gate. Both this signals are added to form PSK wave
A[sin(2πft+p1)+sin(2πft+p2)]. However this PSK wave contains abrupt changes in
phases which causes unnecessary high bandwidth usage. Hence this signal is passed
through Band Pass Filter which limits the bandwidth usage.
For demodulating, the PSK wave is passed through two multipliers again where their
respective carrier waves are multiplied again. This signal is passed through two Band
Pass Filters out of which the top BPF allows the signal with phase shift p1 to pass if
logic is 1 and the bottom allows the signal with phase shift p2 to pass if logic is 0. The
output of both BPF is compared with each other where the output of the comparator is
high if output of BPF1 is greater than output of BPF2 and is low if output of BPF2 is
greater than output of BPF1. Hence a digital signal is received at the output of the
comparator. This digital signal is converted to analog wave using Digital to Analog
Converter.

17. Explain ASK, FSK, PSK, QPSK, and QAM with appropriate illustrations.
18. What is advanced frequency shift keying? Explain with appropriate illustrations.
19.What is the multi-carrier modulation OFDM technique? Why is the OFDM technique
preferred in mobile communication? Provide appropriate illustrations

Multi-Carrier Modulation and OFDM

Multi-Carrier Modulation (MCM) is a technique where the available bandwidth is divided into multiple
carrier frequencies, and data is transmitted simultaneously on these carriers. Orthogonal Frequency
Division Multiplexing (OFDM) is a type of MCM where the subcarriers are orthogonal to each other,
meaning they do not interfere with each other despite being closely spaced.

Understanding OFDM

1. Subcarrier Division: OFDM divides the available spectrum into multiple narrowband subcarriers.
2. Orthogonality: Each subcarrier is orthogonal to the others, preventing interference.
3. Parallel Transmission: Data is split into parallel streams, each transmitted over a different
subcarrier.
Advantages of OFDM in Mobile Communication

1. Efficient Utilization of Bandwidth:

o OFDM maximizes spectral efficiency by placing subcarriers close together without overlapping, using
the available bandwidth more efficiently.

Illustration:

o Single Carrier vs. OFDM: Imagine a single broad lane for traffic (single carrier) versus multiple narrow
lanes (OFDM subcarriers), allowing more vehicles to pass simultaneously.
2. Robustness to Multipath Fading:
o Multipath fading occurs when signals reflect off objects and take multiple paths to the receiver,
causing interference. OFDM handles this by treating the channel as flat fading for each narrowband
subcarrier.

Illustration:

o Multipath Scenario: Visualize signals bouncing off buildings and arriving at different times. OFDM's
subcarriers manage these echoes better than a single wideband signal.
3. Simplified Equalization:
o Each subcarrier in OFDM experiences flat fading, making it easier to equalize than a single wideband
carrier that might experience frequency-selective fading.

Illustration:

o Equalization: Equalizing a wideband signal is like flattening a large sheet of paper with many
wrinkles, whereas equalizing narrowband subcarriers is like flattening multiple small pieces of paper,
which is simpler.
4. Resistance to Interference:
o OFDM is less affected by narrowband interference since only a few subcarriers might be impacted,
not the entire signal.
 Illustration:

o Interference Handling: If one narrow lane (subcarrier) on a highway is blocked, traffic (data) can still
move through other lanes, minimizing disruption.
5. High Spectral Efficiency:
o By packing subcarriers closely together, OFDM achieves high spectral efficiency, essential for
accommodating the high data rates needed in mobile communication.

Illustration:

o Spectral Packing: Imagine books tightly packed on a shelf (subcarriers), making efficient use of the
space (spectrum).
6. Support for High Data Rates:
o OFDM supports high data rates by transmitting data across multiple subcarriers simultaneously.

Illustration:

o Parallel Transmission: Distributing a heavy load across several trucks (subcarriers) allows faster and
more reliable delivery compared to using a single truck (carrier).

20. What is the spread spectrum technique? Explain FHSS and DSSS with appropriate illustrations.

Spread Spectrum

Two types of techniques for Spread Spectrum are:

1. Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)
2. Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)
Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS):
In Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS), different carrier frequencies are
modulated by the source signal i.e. M carrier frequencies are modulated by the signal.
At one moment signal modulates one carrier frequency and at the subsequent
moments, it modulates other carrier frequencies. The general block diagram of FHSS
is shown in the below figure.

Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum

A pseudorandom code generator generates Pseudo-random Noise of some pattern for

each hopping period Th. The frequency corresponding to the pattern is used for the
hopping period and is passed to the frequency synthesizer. The synthesizer generates
a carrier signal of that frequency. The figure above shows the spread signal via FHSS.
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS):
In DSSS, the bandwidth of the original signal is also expanded by a different technique.
Here, each data bit is replaced with n bits using a spreading code called chips, and the
bit rate of the chip is called as chip-rate. The chip rate is n times the bit rate of the
original signal. The below Figure shows the DSSS block diagram.

Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum

In wireless LAN, the sequence with n = 11 is used. The original data is multiplied
by chips (spreading code) to get the spread signal. The required bandwidth of the
spread signal is 11 times larger than the bandwidth of the original signal.
Advantages of DSSS:
 The DSSS System combats the jamming most effectively.
 The performance of DSSS in presence of noise is superior to FHSS.
 Interference is minimized against the signals.

 22. Difference between Circuit Switching and Packet Switching:

Circuit Switching Packet Switching

In-circuit switching has there are 3 phases:

i) Connection Establishment. In Packet switching directly data transfer
ii) Data Transfer. takes place.
iii) Connection Released.

In Packet switching, each data unit just

In-circuit switching, each data unit knows the entire path knows the final destination address
address which is provided by the source. intermediate path is decided by the
routers.

In Packet switching, data is processed at

In-Circuit switching, data is processed at the source system
all intermediate nodes including the
only
source system.

The delay between data units in circuit switching is The delay between data units in packet
uniform. switching is not uniform.

Resource reservation is the feature of circuit switching There is no resource reservation because
because the path is fixed for data transmission. bandwidth is shared among users.

Circuit switching is more reliable. Packet switching is less reliable.

Less wastage of resources as compared to

Wastage of resources is more in Circuit Switching
Circuit Switching

It is not a store and forward technique. It is a store and forward technique.

Transmission of the data is done not only

Transmission of the data is done by the source. by the source but also by the intermediate
routers.

Congestion can occur during the connection establishment Congestion can occur during the data
phase because there might be a case where a request is transfer phase, a large number of packets
being made for a channel but the channel is already comes in no time.
occupied.
 Circuit Switching Packet Switching

Circuit switching is not convenient for handling bilateral Packet switching is suitable for handling
traffic. bilateral traffic.

In Packet switching, the charge is based

In-Circuit switching, the charge depends on time and
on the number of bytes and connection
distance, not on traffic in the network.
time.

23.What is Signalling System 7 (SS-7)? Explain with an example.

Signaling System-7 (SS-7) is a set of protocols that is used to perform
telecommunication all over the globe. It was developed in 1975. This protocol is not
only limited to telephonic calls but also works like number translation, local number
portability, prepaid billing, Short Message Service (SMS), etc are all possible because
of this protocol only.
SS7 Probe :
SS7 probe is a physical device which makes it possible to record or to obtain
information from a telecommunication network. A probe is capable of extracting the
information from a network by monitoring the E1/T1 or SDH / SONET bearer channel.
This work is done in a fully lawful manner. Lawful interception here means the delivery
of calls and data to government-approved reception centers before completing the
request.
Example – The phone call made by us to any person is first sent to the established
data centers before meeting the actual person. In the UK this interception is controlled
by UK RIPA (REGULATION OF INVESTIGATORY POWER ACT 2000) and in Russia
interception is done by Russia SORM. Both these agencies are set up legally.
SS7 Protocol Suite :
It has different protocols that are contained in it. The most important among them are
:
 Message Transfer Protocol (MTP) –
It covers a portion of the OSI network layer and includes the following functions:
network interface, information transfer, message handling, and routing to the
higher levels.

 SCCP –
It completes the function of the OSI network layer, end to end addressing and
routing, connectionless messages (UDTs), and management services for users.

 Telephone User Part (TUP) –

It is a link by link signaling system used to connect calls.

 Transaction Capabilities Application Part (TCAP) –

It is used to create database queries and call on advanced network functionality. It
also links the Intelligent Network Application Part (INAP) for intelligent networks or
Mobile Application Part (MAP) for mobile services.

A protocol is called a set of rules, whereas a protocol stack means a group of
protocols running concurrently for implementing the network protocol suite. It
determines the interconnectivity rules just like OSI and TCP/IP models for a layered
network model.
Every module in the Protocol stack communicates with two layers, to make work and
designing easier. The lower layers add more features to the upper layer.

SS7 Protocol Stack

SS7 protocol stack

1. SS7 Level 1 [Physical layer]: The SS7 protocol stack of physical

layer supports 56 or 64kbps of data rate and which carry raw
signaling data, and it defines the physical and electrical
characteristics of the link. It is virtually the same as layer 1 of the
OSI model called level connectivity.
2. SS7 Level 2 [Data Link, MTP level 2]: Message transfer part level 2 provides a
link layer function, making sure that the messages are exchanged reliably. It
provides flow control, sequence checking, and error checking. In this layer, we use
sequential numbering to determine if any messages are lost during transmission.
3. SS7 Level 3 [Network Layer, MTP level 3]: This layer depends on the services
of Level 2 for providing routing, message distribution, and message discrimination,
it includes node addressing, routing and congestion control, and alternate routing.
From SPC to DPC through the network, the MTP level 3 uses multiple parallel
routes by considering link loading and availability. This MTP Level 3 network layer
helps in the creation of telephony network nodes that are interconnected by SS7
links.
[Upper Layers]
4. TUP (Telephone User Part): This layer is used to set up a telephone call
between two SS7 nodes. It provides telephone calls to be set up and torn down. It
will establish immediately before a call is established and immediately before it
terminates. When a call is in progress no TUP messages are exchanged. It is the
first protocol designed to support Analog phones.
5. ISUP (Integrated Services User Part): It is the same as TUP, but it is a more
sophisticated function available with primary rate ISDN.
Integrated Services consists of:
1. Calling and called number notifications,
2. It can control billing rates,
3. Performs telephony functions, and
4. Control over whether the voice channel is used for voice, data, or fax.
6. SCCP (Signalling Connection Control Part): It runs above MTP layers and
provides facilities similar to UDP and TCP layers of TCP/IP. MTP does not deal
with software applications it only receives and delivers messages from a node,
SCCP allows call processing, advanced intelligent network (AIN), call return
service, repeat dialing all these to be addressed explicitly and It also performs
incremental routing with the help of Global Title Translation (GTT) capability.
SCCP provides four message classes:
1. Class 0: It indicates the connection-less non sequenced message.
2. Class 1: It indicates connection less sequenced delivery of messages.
3. Class 2: It indicates connection-oriented without flow control.
4. Class 3: It indicates connection-oriented with flow control.
7. TCAP (Transaction Capabilities Application Part): TCAP is used to
implement functions unrelated to the origination and termination of actual
telephone calls in the SS7 network. It also provides the information that can be
transferred from an application at a switch location to another application in
another network entity.
8. MAP (Mobile Application Part): It is the most complex SS7 component and is
mainly used in GSM mobile telephone systems to pass information between the
network components.
9. INAP (Intelligent Network Application Part): It is used to implement services
within a network, that allows access to an SCP and also involves the use of an
Intelligent Peripheral (IP). INAP messages are sent between network entities with
the help of TCAP transactions.
10. OMAP (Operations and Administration Application Part): The OMAP is
used by network administrators to control an entire network from a central point.
OMAP provides facilities that include administration of system databases,
performance monitoring, and maintenance access.
25. What are the purposes of IP-based SS-7 SGW and MGW?
IP-based SS-7 Signaling Gateway (SGW) and Media Gateway (MGW) are essential components in
modern telecommunications networks, particularly in transitioning from traditional circuit-switched
networks to IP-based networks. Here are their purposes:

SS-7 Signaling Gateway (SGW)

1. Protocol Translation:
o SGW translates signaling protocols between SS7 (used in traditional PSTN networks) and IP-
based signaling protocols like SIGTRAN (an adaptation of SS7 for IP networks).
2. Network Interconnection:
o SGW facilitates the interconnection between legacy SS7 networks and modern IP-based
networks, enabling seamless communication and interoperability.
3. Signaling Transport:
o SGW ensures the reliable transport of signaling messages over IP networks, maintaining the
integrity and performance of signaling communication.
4. Network Modernization:
o SGW supports the transition from traditional circuit-switched networks to packet-switched
(IP) networks, allowing telecom operators to modernize their infrastructure.
5. Scalability:
o SGW provides scalability, allowing network operators to handle increasing signaling traffic
as they expand their services and subscriber base.

Media Gateway (MGW)

1. Media Stream Conversion:

o MGW converts media streams between different formats. For example, it converts voice
streams from TDM (Time Division Multiplexing) format used in traditional PSTN networks
to RTP (Real-time Transport Protocol) format used in IP networks.
2. Interworking:
o MGW enables interworking between different types of networks (e.g., PSTN, mobile, VoIP),
ensuring that media streams can be transmitted and received across these networks
seamlessly.
3. Resource Management:
o MGW manages media resources such as codecs, transcoding, echo cancellation, and media
packetization, ensuring high-quality voice and multimedia communication.
4. Network Convergence:
o MGW supports the convergence of voice and data networks, allowing operators to provide
integrated services over a unified IP network infrastructure.
5. Service Continuity:
o MGW ensures the continuity of services when transitioning from traditional networks to IP
networks, enabling operators to maintain existing services while deploying new IP-based
services.

In summary, the SS-7 SGW focuses on the signaling aspect, providing protocol translation and
interconnection between SS7 and IP-based networks, while the MGW focuses on media stream conversion
and interworking, enabling voice and multimedia communication across different network types. Both play
a crucial role in the evolution of telecommunications networks towards IP-based architectures.
26. What is the hidden terminal problem? Explain with appropriate illustrations

In wireless LANs ( wireless local area networks), the hidden terminal problem is a
transmission problem that arises when two or more stations who are out of range of each
other transmit simultaneously to a common recipient.

Problem Illustration

Suppose that there are three stations labelled STA, STB, and STC, where STA and STC are
transmitting while STB is receiving. The stations are in a configuration such that the two
transmitters STA and STC are not in the radio range of each other. This is shown in the
following figure −

The above diagram shows that station STA starts transmitting to station STB. Since station
STC is out of radio range of STA, it perceives that the channel is free and starts transmitting
to STB. The frames received by STC are garbled and collision occurs. This situation is known
as the hidden terminal problem.

Solution

The exposed terminal problem is solved by the MAC (medium access control) layer protocol
IEEE 802.11 RTS/CTS, with the condition that the stations are synchronized and frame
sizes and data speed are the same. RTS stands for Request to Send and CTS stands for
Clear to Send.

A transmitting station sends a RTS frame to the receiving station. The receiving station
replies by sending a CTS frame. On receipt of CTS frame, the transmitting station begins
transmission.

Any station hearing the RTS is close to the transmitting station and remains silent long
enough for the CTS. Any station hearing the CTS is close to the receiving station and
remains silent during the data transmission.
In the above example, station STC hears does not hear RTS from station STA, but hears
CTS frame from station STB. So, it understands that STB is busy defers its transmission
thus avoiding collision.

27. What is the exposed terminal problem? Explain with appropriate illustrations

Exposed Terminal Problem

In wireless LAN (local area network) communication, the exposed terminal problem is
a frequent difficulty. It happens when a wireless node cannot transfer data because
another node that is outside its communication range is sending data to another node
that is inside it. Throughput and network performance may suffer as a consequence.
This happens when a station can be seen by a wireless access point but not by other
stations that are connected to the access point.

Let’s assume there are four stations with the names A, B, C, and D, where B and C are
transmitters and A and D are receivers. The stations are set up so that the two emitters
B and C can hear each other but the two receivers A and D cannot hear each other
over radio waves. Transmission from B to A is happening. As a result, C ceases
attempting to transmit to D after mistakenly assuming that the above transmission will
cause interference. However, since the communication from C to D is outside of B’s
range, interference would not have happened. Known as the exposed terminal issue.
How To Prevent Exposed Terminal Problems?
The use of RTS/CTS (Request to Send/Clear to Send) mechanisms, which can stop
two or more nodes from transmitting data at the same time, is the solution to the
exposed terminal issue. An RTS message is the first thing a node sends to the intended
recipient when it wishes to send data. The sender knows it has a clear route to transmit
data unhindered by other nodes if the intended recipient replies with a CTS message.
Any station that hears the RTS is near the transmitter and stays silent long enough for
the CTS to arrive. During the data transmission, any station that hears the CTS is near
to the receiving station and stays silent.
In this case, station C receives RTS from station B but not CTS from station A. To
station D, it is therefore open to transmit.
In this way the Exposed terminal problem can be solved by using MAC (medium access
control) layer protocol, the RTS stands for Request to Send and CTS stands for Clear
to Send.
28. What is the MACAW protocol? How does it mitigate the exposed and hidden
terminal problems? Provide appropriate examples.
The MACAW (Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance for Wireless) protocol is a medium
access control protocol designed for wireless networks to address the issues of collisions due
to the hidden and exposed terminal problems. It is a variant of the CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense
Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance) protocol used in IEEE 802.11 wireless LANs.

Mitigation of Exposed Terminal Problem:

Exposed Terminal Problem: A node refrains from transmitting due to sensing activity from another
transmitter, which is out of range of the intended receiver.

Solution in MACAW:

1. RTS/CTS Mechanism:
o Node A sends an RTS (Request to Send) to Node B.
o Node B replies with a CTS (Clear to Send).
o Nodes like C, which hear the CTS, know not to transmit, preventing unnecessary
transmission blocking.

Example:

A ------> B <------ C
RTS CTS

Node A's RTS and Node B's CTS prevent Node C from transmitting unnecessarily.

Mitigation of Hidden Terminal Problem:

Hidden Terminal Problem: Two nodes out of each other's range transmit to a common receiver, causing
collisions.

Solution in MACAW:

1. RTS/CTS Exchange:
o Node A sends an RTS to Node B.
o Node B replies with a CTS.
o Node C, hearing the CTS from B, refrains from transmitting, preventing a collision.

Example:

A ------> B <------ C
RTS CTS

Node A's RTS and Node B's CTS inform Node C to defer its transmission, avoiding collisions.

Summary:

MACAW uses RTS/CTS exchanges to inform nodes about ongoing transmissions and prevent hidden and
exposed terminal problems, improving network efficiency and reducing collisions.
29. What is CSMA/CA? Why is it necessary for wireless communication? Draw a flowchart to explain
the CSMA/CA protocol.

CSMA/CA: Collision Avoidance in Wireless Networks

CSMA/CA, or Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance, is a protocol designed for
wireless networks to manage data transmission and prevent collisions. Unlike wired networks where devices
can directly detect collisions during transmission, wireless networks face limitations due to signal
propagation.

Why is CSMA/CA necessary?

 Collision Detection Issues: In wired networks, CSMA/CD (Collision Detection) allows devices to detect
collisions while transmitting. However, wireless signals can overlap, making real-time collision detection
during transmission challenging.
 Hidden Terminal Problem: Node A might not hear Node C trying to transmit to the same receiver (Node B)
due to signal limitations. This can lead to collisions.
 Exposed Terminal Problem: Node C might detect a busy channel due to Node A transmitting to Node B, even
though Node C wouldn't cause a collision. This leads to wasted bandwidth as Node C avoids transmitting
unnecessarily.

Algorithm

The algorithm of CSMA/CA is as follows:

Step 1 − The station is ready to transmit. It senses the line by using any one of the persistent
strategies.

Step 2 − If the found line is to be idle, the station waits for an IFG (Interframe gap) amount
of time.

Step 3 − Then waits for some random time and sends the frame.

Step 4 − After sending the frame, it sets a timer and waits for the ACK from the receiver.

Step 5 − If the ACK is received before the expiry of timer, then the transmission is
successful.

Step 6 − But if the transmitting station does not receive the expected ACK before the timer
expires then it increments the back off parameter, waits for the back off time and re-senses
the line.
CSMA/CA Flow Chart

The flowchart of CSMA/CA is as follows −

30. What is controlled access? Explain the polling and reservation techniques

In controlled access, the stations seek information from one another to find which
station has the right to send. It allows only one node to send at a time, to avoid the
collision of messages on a shared medium.
The three controlled-access methods are:
1. Reservation
2. Polling
3. Token Passing

Reservation
 In the reservation method, a station needs to make a reservation before sending
data.
 The timeline has two kinds of periods:
1. Reservation interval of fixed time length
2. Data transmission period of variable frames.
 If there are M stations, the reservation interval is divided into M slots, and each
station has one slot.
 Suppose if station 1 has a frame to send, it transmits 1 bit during the slot 1. No
other station is allowed to transmit during this slot.
 In general, i th station may announce that it has a frame to send by inserting a 1 bit
into i th slot. After all N slots have been checked, each station knows which stations
wish to transmit.
 The stations which have reserved their slots transfer their frames in that order.
 After data transmission period, next reservation interval begins.
 Since everyone agrees on who goes next, there will never be any collisions.
The following figure shows a situation with five stations and a five-slot reservation
frame. In the first interval, only stations 1, 3, and 4 have made reservations. In the
second interval, only station 1 has made a reservation.

Polling
 Polling process is similar to the roll-call performed in class. Just like the teacher, a
controller sends a message to each node in turn.
 In this, one acts as a primary station (controller) and the others are secondary
stations. All data exchanges must be made through the controller.
 The message sent by the controller contains the address of the node being
selected for granting access.
 Although all nodes receive the message the addressed one responds to it and
sends data if any. If there is no data, usually a “poll reject”(NAK) message is sent
back.
 Problems include high overhead of the polling messages and high dependence on
the reliability of the controller.
31. Can you explain the GSM architecture with appropriate illustrations?

GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications) is a standard developed to describe protocols for second-
generation (2G) digital cellular networks. Here is a detailed explanation of the GSM architecture along with
appropriate illustrations to help you understand its components and their interactions.

Overview of GSM Architecture

1. Mobile Station (MS)

The Mobile Station is the user's device, which includes:

 Mobile Equipment (ME): The physical device, like a mobile phone or a modem.
 Subscriber Identity Module (SIM): A detachable smart card containing the user's subscription information,
such as the IMSI (International Mobile Subscriber Identity) and authentication keys.

2. Base Station Subsystem (BSS)

The BSS connects the mobile station to the network and is composed of:

 Base Transceiver Station (BTS): It handles the radio communication with the mobile station. Each BTS covers
a cell in the network.
 Base Station Controller (BSC): It manages multiple BTSs, handling resource allocation, handovers, and
frequency hopping.

3. Network and Switching Subsystem (NSS)

The NSS is the core part of the GSM network, responsible for call routing, mobility management, and
subscriber data management. It includes:

 Mobile Switching Center (MSC): The primary component of NSS, it performs call switching, manages call
setup, and handles mobility management.
 Home Location Register (HLR): A database that contains the permanent subscriber information, such as the
IMSI, MSISDN (Mobile Station ISDN number), and services subscribed by the user.
 Visitor Location Register (VLR): A temporary database linked to an MSC, containing information about
subscribers currently in the MSC's service area.
 Authentication Center (AUC): It stores the authentication and encryption keys for subscribers.
  Equipment Identity Register (EIR): A database that stores information about the validity of mobile
equipment.
 Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) : PSTN connects with MSC. PSTN originally a network of fixed line
analog telephone systems.

4. Operation and Support Subsystem (OSS)

 Operation and Maintenance Center (OMC): Part of the OSS, it is used by network operators to monitor,
control, and maintain the GSM network. It provides a centralized interface for network management,
including fault management, configuration management, and performance monitoring.

Detailed Interaction Between Components

1. Mobile Station (MS) and BTS:

o The MS communicates with the nearest BTS over the radio interface.
2. BTS and BSC:
o The BTS forwards the communication to the BSC. The BSC manages multiple BTSs.
3. BSC and MSC:
o The BSC sends the data to the MSC, which is responsible for routing the call and managing mobility.
4. MSC and HLR/VLR:
o The MSC consults the HLR to get subscriber information and uses the VLR for managing temporary
subscriber data.
5. MSC and AUC/EIR:
o The MSC communicates with the AUC for authentication purposes and with the EIR to verify the
validity of the mobile equipment.
32. How do HLR and VLR work?
33. What are the key features of GSM?

GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications) is known for its robust and reliable mobile
communication technology. Here are the key features that make GSM distinct and widely adopted:

Key Features of GSM

1. International Roaming
o GSM allows users to use their mobile phones in different countries with compatible networks. This
global interoperability is a significant advantage for travelers.
2. High Voice Quality
o GSM ensures high voice quality through its digital nature and various error correction techniques.
This minimizes noise and distortion in voice communication.
3. Security Features
o GSM provides secure communication through encryption and authentication mechanisms. It uses
algorithms like A5/1 and A5/2 for encryption and a challenge-response protocol for authentication.
4. Spectral Efficiency
o GSM employs frequency division multiple access (FDMA) combined with time division multiple
access (TDMA), allowing multiple users to share the same frequency channel efficiently.
5. SIM Cards
o The use of Subscriber Identity Module (SIM) cards in GSM networks allows easy switching between
devices while retaining the user's mobile number and subscription details.
6. Support for Data Services
o GSM supports various data services, including SMS (Short Message Service), MMS (Multimedia
Messaging Service), and basic internet access through technologies like GPRS (General Packet Radio
Service) and EDGE (Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution).
7. Wide Coverage
o GSM networks offer extensive coverage, making them accessible in urban and rural areas worldwide.
This widespread coverage is facilitated by the standardization and widespread deployment of GSM
technology.
8. Enhanced Privacy
o GSM enhances user privacy through temporary identifiers (TMSI - Temporary Mobile Subscriber
Identity), which are used instead of the permanent identifier (IMSI) over the air interface.
9. Efficient Handover
o GSM supports seamless handover processes, allowing users to move from one cell to another
without dropping calls. This is crucial for maintaining call continuity in mobile environments.
10. Compatibility with Various Services
o GSM networks can interoperate with other networks, including public switched telephone networks
(PSTN), integrated services digital networks (ISDN), and other mobile networks.
11. Supplementary Services
o GSM offers various supplementary services, such as call forwarding, call waiting, call barring, caller
ID, conference calling, and voicemail.
12. Frequency Bands
o GSM operates on multiple frequency bands, such as 900 MHz, 1800 MHz, and 1900 MHz, which
allows for flexibility in network planning and deployment in different regions.
13. Efficient Use of Spectrum
o GSM uses frequency re-use techniques and cell splitting to maximize the efficient use of the available
spectrum, allowing for higher capacity in densely populated areas.
14. Network Management
o GSM networks incorporate robust network management systems, including operations and
maintenance centers (OMC), which help in monitoring, controlling, and maintaining the network for
optimal performance.
34. What is the functionality of BTS?

Sure, here are the key functionalities of a Base Transceiver Station (BTS) in a shortened format:

1. Radio Transmission and Reception: Manages radio communication with mobile stations.
2. Frequency and Time Slot Management: Allocates frequencies and time slots for communication.
3. Signal Encoding and Decoding: Handles modulation and demodulation of signals.
4. Error Correction and Detection: Applies techniques to ensure data integrity.
5. Power Control: Adjusts signal power levels to optimize transmission.
6. Timing Advance Calculation: Adjusts transmission timing for signal synchronization.
7. Handover Management: Facilitates seamless transition between cells.
8. Ciphering: Encrypts data for secure communication.
9. Monitoring and Reporting: Tracks and reports signal quality metrics.
10. Channel Coding: Adds redundancy for error detection and correction.

35. Key Functionalities of Base Station Controller (BSC) and Mobile Switching Center
(MSC)

Base Station Controller (BSC)

1. Radio Resource Management: Allocates and manages radio frequencies and time slots.
2. Handover Management: Ensures seamless transition of mobile stations between BTSs.
3. Power Control: Optimizes signal strength and reduces interference.
4. Traffic Management: Manages active calls and data sessions.
5. BTS Control: Configures and manages BTS operations.

Mobile Switching Center (MSC)

1. Call Routing and Switching: Routes voice calls and data sessions.
2. Mobility Management: Tracks location and manages handovers between BSCs and MSCs.
3. Authentication and Security: Authenticates subscribers and implements security measures.
4. Interworking Functions: Interfaces with external networks like PSTN and ISDN.
5. Billing and Charging: Collects billing information for calls and data sessions.
6. Subscriber Data Management: Retrieves and updates subscriber information.

36. What is EIR? Why is it an important database maintained by the Mobile Switching Centres?

EIR stands for Equipment Identity Register. It is an important database maintained within the Mobile
Switching Centers (MSCs) in GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications) networks. The primary
purpose of the EIR is to store information related to mobile equipment (ME), specifically the International
Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI) numbers. Here’s why the EIR is crucial:

Importance of EIR:

1. Security: EIR prevents unauthorized or stolen devices from accessing the network, enhancing
overall security.
2. Regulatory Compliance: It helps operators comply with regulations by managing authorized device
usage.
3. Customer Assurance: Subscribers benefit from knowing their devices are protected and can report
losses to block unauthorized use.
4. Network Management: EIR ensures only compliant devices use network resources, optimizing
network performance.
 37. Why are the Internetworking Function (IWF) and International Switching Centre (ISC) used
in GSM?

IWF (Internetworking Function) and ISC (International Switching Centre) are used together in GSM
networks to enable seamless communication between the GSM network and external networks, particularly
for international calls.

 IWF (Internetworking Function): Acts as a translator and bridge between the GSM network and
other networks like the PSTN (Public Switched Telephone Network). It performs tasks like:
o Protocol conversion: GSM uses its own protocols for communication, while PSTN has
different protocols. IWF converts between these protocols to ensure messages are understood
by both networks.
o Call routing: IWF helps route calls to the appropriate network based on the destination phone
number.
 ISC (International Switching Centre): The core element for international call routing in GSM
networks. It connects the GSM network to telephone networks worldwide. Here's what ISC does:
o Selects the most efficient route for international calls: ISC considers factors like call quality,
cost, and traffic congestion to choose the best path for connecting the call.
o Routes calls to the destination network: Once the optimal route is identified, ISC directs the
call to the appropriate international carrier or network.

In essence, IWF prepares the information for the call (translation and routing), while ISC handles the actual
connection and path selection for international communication within the GSM network.

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