FLEXIBLE DOMINICAN EDUCATION MODULE

COURSE: CPE 313

MODULE NO.: 2 (PRELIM TERM)
MODULE TITLE: DATA AND DIGITAL COMMS.
TOPIC: DIGITAL MODULATION TECHNIQUES
WRITER: ENGR. EXEQUIEL SABATER

TO DO WELL IN THIS MODULE, YOU NEED TO REMEMBER THE FOLLOWING:

1. Pause and pray before starting this module

2. Everyday have a meeting at zoom based at the time given to FB Messenger Group Chat CpE 313 Data & Dig Comms.
3. Discuss the topic based on the module while at the meeting and you are free to ask.
4. Please upload answers to Exercises, Activities and Exams to FB Messenger Group Chat CpE 313 Data & Dig Comms. with
file format: Exercise/Activity/Exam no.#_CpE 313_Surname.

PRAYERS BEFORE WE START

“ MAY GOD THE FATHER BLESS US.

MAY GOD THE SON HEAL US.
MAY GOD THE HOLY SPIRIT ENLIGHTEN US,
AND GIVE US
EYES TO SEE WITH,
EARS TO HEAR WITH,
HANDS TO DO THE WORK OF GOD WITH,
FEET TO WALK WITH,
A MOUTH TO PREACH THE WORD OF SALVATION WITH,
AND THE ANGEL OF PEACE TO WATCH OVER US AND LEAD US AT LAST,
BY OUR LORD'S GIFT, TO THE KINGDOM.
AMEN. ”

MODULE INTRODUCTION AND FOCUS QUESTION(S):

Data and Digital Communication forms part of the core curriculum for all Leaving Certificate Applied students. It is intended to
give students the skills and understanding to use computers in both their current and future lives. The Leaving Certificate Applied
program offers the ideal forum for students to apply these skills in a practical way, particularly in presenting task work and key
assignments across the full spectrum of the curriculum. The achievable goals of developing accuracy, neatness and presentation skills
generate a sense of pride in work done by students which enhances self-esteem and motivates students to maximize their potential in
other aspects of the course and in their personal lives.

Lesson Subtopics LEARNING OUTCOMES Estimated Time

“I SHOULD BE ABLE TO”….
DIGITAL  INTRODUCTION OF  Determine the five components that
MODULATION DIGITAL make up a data communications
MODULATION system and a network set of
TECHNIQUES communication devices connected by
 INFORMATION
media links
CAPACITY, BITS, BIT
RATE, BAUD, AND
 Describe the difference of bits and 6hrs
MARY ENCODING
binary in its concept
 AMPLITUDE-SHIFT
KEYING  Determine the set of rules that govern
 FREQUENCY-SHIFT data communication and the key
KEYING elements of a protocol are syntax,
semantics and timing
 DATA AND DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

PRETEST
Let’s find out how much you already know about this module. Click on the letter that you think best answers the question.
Please answer all items. After taking this short test, you will see your score. Take note of the items that you were not able to correctly
answer and look for the right answer as you go through this module.
IDENTIFICATION OF THE PROBLEM

1. A term derived from the word binary

2. Varied proportional to the information signal, frequency shift keying (FSK) is produced, and if the
phase of the carrier (0) is varied proportional to the information signal, phase shift keying (PSK) is
produced.
3. Is shaped (filtered), amplified, and then transmitted through the transmission medium to the
receiver.
4. Refers to the rate of change of a signal on the transmission medium after encoding and modulation
have occurred.
5. Is the same as the rate of change of the binary input (bps).
6. Is a form of constant-amplitude angle modulation similar to standard frequency modulation (FM)
except the modulating signal is a binary signal that varies between two discrete voltage levels rather
than a continuously changing analog waveform.
7. Is amplitude-shift keying (ASK), where a binary information signal directly modulates the amplitude
of an analog carrier

ACRONYMS OF THE GIVEN PROBLEM

1. DAM
2. ASK
3. QAM
4. PSK
5. FSK
PROBLEM SOLVING

1. Determine (a) the peak frequency deviation, (b) minimum bandwidth, and (c) baud for a binary FSK
signal with a mark frequency of 69 kHz, a space frequency of 71 kHz, and an input bit rate of 2 kbps.
2. Determine (a) the peak frequency deviation, (b) minimum bandwidth, and (c) baud for a binary FSK
signal with a mark frequency of 45 kHz, a space frequency of 50 kHz, and an input bit rate of 3 kbps
 DATA AND DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

TOPICS
TITLE: DIGITAL MODULATION TECHNIQUES

Referring to Equation (2.1), if the information signal is digital and the amplitude (lV of the carrier is varied
proportional to the information signal, a digitally modulated signal called amplitude shift keying (ASK) is produced.

If the frequency (f) is varied proportional to the information signal, frequency shift keying (FSK) is produced, and
if the phase of the carrier (0) is varied proportional to the information signal, phase shift keying (PSK) is produced.

If both the amplitude and the phase are varied proportional to the information signal, quadrature amplitude
modulation (QAM) results. ASK, FSK, PSK, and QAM are all forms of digital modulation:

In the transmitter, the precoder performs level conversion and then encodes the incoming data into groups of
bits that modulate an analog carrier.

The modulated carrier is shaped (filtered), amplified, and then transmitted through the transmission medium to
the receiver.

The transmission medium can be a metallic cable, optical fiber cable, Earth's atmosphere, or a combination of
two or more types of transmission systems.

In the receiver, the incoming signals are filtered, amplified, and then applied to the demodulator and decoder
circuits, which extracts the original source information from the modulated carrier.

The clock and carrier recovery circuits recover the analog carrier and digital timing (clock) signals from the
incoming modulated wave since they are necessary to perform the demodulation process.
 DATA AND DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

INFORMATION CAPACITY, BITS, BIT RATE, BAUD, AND MARY ENCODING

Information Capacity, Bits, and Bit Rate

It can be seen that information capacity is a linear function of bandwidth and transmission time and is directly
proportional to both.

If either the bandwidth or the transmission time changes, a directly proportional change occurs in the
information capacity.

The higher the signal-to-noise ratio, the better the performance and the higher the information capacity.

Mathematically stated, the Shannon limit for information capacity is

For a standard telephone circuit with a signal-to-noise power ratio of 1000 (30 dB) and a bandwidth of 2.7 kHz,
the Shannon limit for information capacity is

I = (3.32)(2700) log10 (1 + 1000) = 26.9 kbps

Shannon's formula is often misunderstood. The results of the preceding example indicate that 26.9 kbps can be
propagated through a 2.7-kHz communications channel. This may be true, but it cannot be done with a binary system.
To achieve an information transmission rate of 26.9 kbps through a 2.7-kHz channel, each symbol transmitted must
contain more than one bit.
 DATA AND DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

M-ary Encoding
M-ary is a term derived from the word binary.

M simply represents a digit that corresponds to the number of conditions, levels, or combinations possible for a
given number of binary variables.

For example, a digital signal with four possible conditions (voltage levels, frequencies, phases, and so on) is an
M-ary system where M = 4. If there are eight possible conditions, M = 8 and so forth.

The number of bits necessary to produce a given number of conditions is expressed mathematically as

where

N = number of bits necessary M = number of conditions, levels, or combinations possible with N bits.

Equation 2-5 can be simplified and rearranged to express the number of conditions possible with N bits as

For example, with one bit, only 23 = 2 conditions are possible. With two bits, 2 2 = 4 conditions are possible, with
three bits, 23 = 8 conditions are possible, and so on.

Baud and Minimum Bandwidth

Baud refers to the rate of change of a signal on the transmission medium after encoding and modulation have
occurred.

Hence, baud is a unit of transmission rate, modulation rate, or symbol rate and, therefore, the terms symbols
per second and baud are often used interchangeably.

Mathematically, baud is the reciprocal of the time of one output signaling element, and a signaling element may
represent several information bits. Baud is expressed as

where

baud = symbol rate (baud per second) t s = time of one signaling element (seconds)
 DATA AND DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

The minimum theoretical bandwidth necessary to propagate a signal is called the minimum Nyquist bandwidth
or sometimes the minimum Nyquist frequency.

Thus, fb = 2B, where fb is the bit rate in bps and B is the ideal Nyquist bandwidth.

The relationship between bandwidth and bit rate also applies to the opposite situation. For a given bandwidth
(B), the highest theoretical bit rate is 2B.

For example, a standard telephone circuit has a bandwidth of approximately 2700 Hz, which has the capacity to
propagate 5400 bps through it. However, if more than two levels are used for signaling (higher-than-binary encoding),
more than one bit may be transmitted at a time, and it is possible to propagate a bit rate that exceeds 2B. Using
multilevel signaling, the Nyquist formulation for channel capacity is

If N is substituted for log2 M, Equation 2.9 reduces to

Where N is the number of bits encoded into each signaling element.

In addition, since baud is the encoded rate of change, it also equals the bit rate divided by the number of bits
encoded into one signaling element. Thus,

By comparing Equation 2.10 with Equation 2.11 the baud and the ideal minimum Nyquist bandwidth have the
same value and are equal to the bit rate divided by the number of bits encoded.
 DATA AND DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

AMPLITUDE-SHIFT KEYING
The simplest digital modulation technique is amplitude-shift keying (ASK), where a binary information signal
directly modulates the amplitude of an analog carrier.

ASK is similar to standard amplitude modulation except there are only two output amplitudes possible.
Amplitude shift keying is sometimes called digital amplitude modulation (DAM).

Mathematically, amplitude-shift keying is

Where

vask(t) = amplitude-shift keying wave

vm(t) = digital information (modulating) signal (volts)

A/2 = unmodulated carrier amplitude (volts)

ωc = analog carrier radian frequency (radians per second, 2πfc t)

In Equation 2.12, the modulating signal [vm(t)] is a normalized binary waveform, where + 1 V = logic 1 and -1 V =
logic 0. Therefore, for a logic 1 input, vm(t) = + 1 V, Equation 2.12 reduces to

and for a logic 0 input, vm(t) = -1 V, Equation 2.12 reduces to

Thus, the modulated wave vask(t), is either A cos(ωc t) or 0. Hence, the carrier is either "on" or "off," which is why
amplitude-shift keying is sometimes referred to as on-off keying (OOK).

Figure 2-2 shows the input and output waveforms from an ASK modulator.

From the figure, it can be seen that for every change in the input binary data stream, there is one change in the
ASK waveform, and the time of one bit (t b) equals the time of one analog signaling element (t,).
 DATA AND DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

FIGURE 2-2 Digital amplitude modulation:

(a) input binary;

(b) output DAM waveform

The entire time the binary input is high, the output is constant amplitude, constant-frequency signal, and for the
entire time the binary input is low, the carrier is off.

The rate of change of the ASK waveform (baud) is the same as the rate of change of the binary input (bps).

The use of amplitude-modulated analog carriers to transport digital information is a relatively low-quality, low-
cost type of digital modulation and, therefore, is seldom used except for very lows peed telemetry circuits.

FREQUENCY-SHIFT KEYING
FSK is a form of constant-amplitude angle modulation similar to standard frequency modulation (FM) except the
modulating signal is a binary signal that varies between two discrete voltage levels rather than a continuously changing
analog waveform.

Consequently, FSK is sometimes called binary FSK (BFSK).

The general expression for FSK is

where vfsk(t) = binary FSK waveform

Vc = peak analog carrier amplitude (volts)

fc = analog carrier center frequency (hertz)

∆f = peak change (shift) in the analog carrier frequency 11 (hertz)

vm(t) = binary input (modulating) signal (volts)

 DATA AND DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

From Equation 2.13, it can be seen that the peak shift in the carrier frequency (∆f) is proportional to the
amplitude of the binary input signal (v m[t]), and the direction of the shift is determined by the polarity.

The modulating signal is a normalized binary waveform where a logic 1 = + 1 V and a logic 0 = -1 V. Thus, for a
logic l input, vm(t) = + 1, Equation 2.13 can be rewritten as

For a logic 0 input, vm(t) = -1, Equation 2.13 becomes

With binary FSK, the carrier center frequency (f c) is shifted (deviated) up and down in the frequency domain by
the binary input signal as shown in Figure 2-3.

FIGURE 2-3 FSK in the frequency domain

As the binary input signal changes from a logic 0 to a logic 1 and vice versa, the output frequency shifts between
two frequencies: a mark, or logic 1 frequency (f m), and a space, or logic 0 frequency (f s). The mark and space frequencies
are separated from the carrier frequency by the peak frequency deviation (∆f) and from each other by 2 ∆f.

Frequency deviation is illustrated in Figure 2-3 and expressed mathematically as

∆f = |fm – fs | / 2

where

∆f = frequency deviation (hertz)

|fm – fs | = absolute difference between the mark and space frequencies (hertz)

Figure 2-4a shows in the time domain the binary input to an FSK modulator and the corresponding FSK output.
 DATA AND DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

When the binary input (fb) changes from a logic 1 to a logic 0 and vice versa, the FSK output frequency shifts
from a mark ( fm) to a space (fs) frequency and vice versa.

In Figure 2-4a, the mark frequency is the higher frequency (f c + ∆f) and the space frequency is the lower
frequency (fc - ∆f), although this relationship could be just the opposite.

Figure 2-4b shows the truth table for a binary FSK modulator. The truth table shows the input and output
possibilities for a given digital modulation scheme.

FIGURE 2-4 FSK in the time domain: (a) waveform: (b) truth table

FSK Bit Rate, Baud, and Bandwidth

In Figure 2-4a, it can be seen that the time of one bit (t b) is the same as the time the FSK output is a mark of
space frequency (ts). Thus, the bit time equals the time of an FSK signaling element, and the bit rate equals the baud.

The baud for binary FSK can also be determined by substituting N = 1 in Equation 2.11:

baud = fb / 1 = fb

The minimum bandwidth for FSK is given as

B = |(fs – fb) – (fm – fb)|

= |(fs– fm)| + 2fb

and since |(fs– fm)| equals 2∆f, the minimum bandwidth can be approximated as

B = 2(∆f + fb)
 DATA AND DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

where

B= minimum Nyquist bandwidth (hertz)

∆f= frequency deviation |(fm– fs)| (hertz)

fb = input bit rate (bps)

Example
Determine (a) the peak frequency deviation, (b) minimum bandwidth, and (c) baud for a binary FSK signal with a
mark frequency of 49 kHz, a space frequency of 51 kHz, and an input bit rate of 2 kbps.

Solution

a. The peak frequency deviation is determined from Equation 2.14:

∆f = |49kHz - 51 kHz| / 2 =-1 kHz

b. The minimum bandwidth is determined from Equation 2.15:

B = 2(-1000 + 2000)
= 2 kHz c. For FSK,

c. N = 1, and the baud is determined from Equation 2.11 as

baud = 2000 / 1 = 2000

Bessel functions can also be used to determine the approximate bandwidth for an FSK wave. As shown in Figure
2-5, the fastest rate of change (highest fundamental frequency) in a non-return-to-zero (NRZ) binary signal occurs when
alternating 1s and 0s are occurring (i.e., a square wave).
 DATA AND DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

FIGURE 9-5 FSK modulator, tb, time of one bit = 1/fb; f m mark frequency; f s , space frequency; T1, period of
shortest cycle; 1/T1, fundamental frequency of binary square wave; f b, input bit rate (bps)

ACTIVITY
Determine (a) the peak frequency deviation, (b) minimum bandwidth, and (c) baud for a binary FSK signal with a mark
frequency of 69 kHz, a space frequency of 71 kHz, and an input bit rate of 2 kbps.

ASSESTMENT
Let’s find out how much you already know about this module. Click on the letter that you think best answers the question.
Please answer all items. After taking this short test, you will see your score. Take note of the items that you were not able to correctly
answer and look for the right answer as you go through this module.
IDENTIFICATION OF THE PROBLEM

1. A term derived from the word binary

2. Varied proportional to the information signal, frequency shift keying (FSK) is produced, and if the
phase of the carrier (0) is varied proportional to the information signal, phase shift keying (PSK) is
produced.
3. Is shaped (filtered), amplified, and then transmitted through the transmission medium to the
receiver.
4. Refers to the rate of change of a signal on the transmission medium after encoding and modulation
have occurred.
5. Is the same as the rate of change of the binary input (bps).
6. Is a form of constant-amplitude angle modulation similar to standard frequency modulation (FM)
except the modulating signal is a binary signal that varies between two discrete voltage levels rather
than a continuously changing analog waveform.
7. Is amplitude-shift keying (ASK), where a binary information signal directly modulates the amplitude
of an analog carrier

ACRONYMS OF THE GIVEN PROBLEM

1. DAM
2. ASK
3. QAM
4. PSK
5. FSK
 DATA AND DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

PROBLEM SOLVING

1. Determine (a) the peak frequency deviation, (b) minimum bandwidth, and (c) baud for a binary FSK
signal with a mark frequency of 69 kHz, a space frequency of 71 kHz, and an input bit rate of 2 kbps.
2. Determine (a) the peak frequency deviation, (b) minimum bandwidth, and (c) baud for a binary FSK
signal with a mark frequency of 45 kHz, a space frequency of 50 kHz, and an input bit rate of 3 kbps

RUBRICS
Category 4 3 2 1
Neatness and The work is presented The work is The work is The work appears sloppy
organization in a neat, clear, presented in a neat presented in an and unorganized. It is hard
organized fashion that and organized organized fashion to know what information
is easy to read. fashion that is but may be hard to goes together.
usually easy to read. read at times.
Understanding I got it!! I did it in new I got it. I understood I understood parts of I did not understand the
ways and showed you the fundamental of the discussion, but I information.
how it worked. I can computer couldn’t finish.
tell you what math
concepts are used.
Strategy & Typically, uses an Typically, uses an Sometimes uses an Rarely uses an effective
Procedures efficient and effective effective strategy to effective strategy to strategy to understand the
strategy to deliver of elaborate briefly discuss the topic.
information. information, but
does not do it
consistently.
Identification errors 90-100% of the steps Almost all (85-89%) Most (75-84%) of More than 75% of the steps
and the given of the steps and the the steps and the and the given problems
problems has no given problems has given problems has have errors.
errors no errors. no errors.
Completion All problems are All but one of the All but two of the Several of the problems are
completed. problems are problems are not completed.
completed. completed.
 DATA AND DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

CLOSURE

Learning Skills OMG, I still need

Well, more examples
Easy, I get it help
please

I CAN DETERMINE the five components that make

up a data communications system and a network set of
communication devices connected by media links

I CAN DESCRIBE the difference of bits and binary

in its concept

I CAN ASSESS the set of rules that govern data

communication and the key elements of a
protocol are syntax, semantics and timing

REFERENCES
 Ali Zaidi, Fredrik Athley, Jonas Medbo, Ulf Gustavsson, Giuseppe Durisi, Xiaoming Chen, 5g Physical Layer, Principles,
models and Technology Components (2018)

 Behrouz A. Forouzan (2016) – DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING (Fourth Edition)

 Dr. J.S Chitode Analog and digital communication first (2015) edition