Module 4 Individual Differences 5.

Use varied instructional methods to

accommodate student diversity in learning
As a facilitator of learning, the teacher is tasked to
styles.
consider the individual differences among students in
6. Vary the examples you use to illustrate
planning for effective instructions
concepts in order to provide multiple contexts
that are relevant to students from diverse
backgrounds
Factors that bring about student diversity 7. Adapt to the students’ diverse backgrounds and
1. Socioeconomic status – different lifestyles learning styles by allowing them personal choice
2. Thinking/learning style – some learn better by and decision-making opportunities concerning
seeing, some by listening, and others by what they will learn and how they will learn it.
manipulating 8. Diversify your methods of assessing and
3. Exceptionalities – There are learners that have evaluating student learning.
difficulty in spoken language, comprehension, 9. Purposely form small-discussion groups of
or in seeing, hearing and etc. students from diverse backgrounds.

How student diversity enriches the learning

environment Module 5 Leaning/Thinking Styles and Multiple
1. Students’ self-awareness is enhanced by Intelligences
diversity Individuals think and learn in distinct ways.
- Exposing students to others with different
backgrounds and experiences also serves to
help students focus on their awareness of
themselves.
2. Student diversity contributes to cognitive
development.
- The opportunity to gain access to the
perspectives of peers and to learn from
other students.
3. Student diversity prepares learners for their
role as a responsible member of society.
4. Student diversity can promote harmony.

Some tips on Student Diversity

1. Encourage learners to share their personal

history and experiences
2. Integrate learning experiences and activities
which promote students’ multicultural and
cross-cultural awareness.
3. Aside from highlighting diversity, identify
patterns of unity that transcend group
differences.
4. Communicate high expectations to students
from all subgroups.
Module 8 Neo Behaviorism: Tolman and Bandura knowledge about the environment and then revealing
that knowledge through purposeful and goal-directed
behavior.
With new research, explanations provided by the basic
Tolman stated in his sign theory that organism that an
principles of behaviorism appeared not to satisfy all
organism learns by pursuing signs to a goal, i.e., learning
learning scenarios. New theories came into view which
is acquired through meaningful behavior. He stressed
maintained some of the behaviorist concepts but
the organized aspect of learning: “The stimuli which are
excluded others, and added new ideas which later came
allowed in are not connected by just simple one-to-one
to be associated with cognitive views of learning. The
switches to the outgoing responses. Rather the
neo-behaviorists, then, were a transitional group,
incoming impulses are usually worked over and
bridging the gap between behaviorism and cognitive
elaborated in the central control room into tentative
theories of learning.
cognitive-like ma of the environment. And it is this
tentative map, indicating routes and paths and
environmental relationships, which finally determines
Tolman’s Purposive Behaviorism what responses, if any, the animal will finally make”.
Usually, people who worked on the maze activity which Tolman’s form of behaviorism stressed the relationship
you just did would say they found the second maze between stimuli rather that stimulus-response. Tolman
easier. This is because they saw that the two mazes said that a new stimulus (the sign) becomes associated
were identical, except that the entrance and exit points with already meaningful stimulus (the significate)
were reversed. Their experience in doing maze A helped through series of pairing; there is no need for
them answer maze B a lot easier. People create mental reinforcement.
maps of things they perceived. These mental maps help
them respond to other things or tasks later, especially if Tolman’s Key Concept
they see the similarity. You may respond with trial or
Learning is always purposive and goal-directed. Tolman
error (behavioristic), but later on, your response
asserted that learning is always purposive and goal-
becomes more internally driven (cognitive perspective).
directed. He held the notion that an organism acted or
This is what neo-behaviorism is about. It has aspects of
responded for some adaptive purpose. He believed
behaviorism but also reaches out to the cognitive
individuals do more than merely respond to stimuli;
perspective.
they act on beliefs, attitudes, changing conditions, and
There are two theories reflecting the neo-behaviorism they strive toward goals. Tolman saw behavior as
that stands out. Edward Tolman’s Purposive holistic, purposive and cognitive.
Behaviorism and Albert Bandura’s Social Learning
Cognitive maps in rats. In his most famous experiment,
Theory. Both theories are influenced by behaviorism
one group of rats was placed at random starting
( which is focused on external elements in learning), but
locations in a maze but the food was always on the
their principles seem to be also reflective of the
same location. Another group of rats had the food
cognitive perspective (focused on more internal
placed in different locations which always acquired
elements).
exactly the same pattern of turns from their starting
Tolman’s Purposive Behaviorism location. The group that had the food in the same
location performed much better than the other group,
Purposive behaviorism has also been referred to as Sign supposedly demonstrating that they has learned the
Learning Theory and is often seen as the link between location rather than a specific sequence of turns. This is
behaviorism and cognitive theory. Tolman’s theory was the tendency to “learn location” signified that rats
founded on two psychological views: those of the somehow formed cognitive maps that help them
gestalt psychologists and those of john Watson, the perform well on the maze. He also found out that
behaviorist. organisms will select the shortest or easiest path to
Tolman believed that learning is a cognitive process. achieve a goal.
Learning involves forming beliefs and obtaining
Applied in human learning, since a student passes by be presented by a permanent change in
the same route going to school every day, he requires a behavior, in contrast social theorist says that
cognitive map of the location of his school. So when because people can learn through observation
transportation re-routing is done, he can still figure out alone, their learning may not necessarily be
what turns to make to get to school the shortest or shown in their performance. Learning may not
easiest way. result in a behavior change.
3. Cognition plays a role in learning. Over the last
Latent learning. Latent learning is a kind of learning that
30 years, social learning theory has become
remains or stays with the individual until needed. It is
increasingly cognitive in its interpretation of
learning that is not outwardly manifested at once.
human learning. Awareness and expectations of
According to Tolman, it can exist even without
future reinforcement or punishments can have
reinforcement. He demonstrated in his rat experiments
a major effect on the behaviors that people
wherein rats “learned the maze” by forming cognitive
exhibit.
maps of the maze, but manifested this knowledge of the
4. Social learning theory can be considered a
maze only when they needed to.
bridge or a transition between behaviorist
The concept of intervening variables. Intervening learning theories and cognitive learning
variables are variables that are not readily seen but theories.
serve as determinants of behavior. Tolman believed
that learning is mediated or is influenced by
expectations, perceptions representations, needs, and How the environment reinforces and punishes modeling
other internal or environmental variables. Example, in
People are often reinforced for modeling the behavior
his experiments with rats he found out that hunger was
of others. Bandura suggested that the environment also
an intervening variable.
reinforces modeling. This is in several possible ways:
Reinforcement not essential for learning. Tolman
1. The observer is reinforced by the model.
concluded that reinforcement is not essential for
2. The observer is reinforced by the third person.
learning, although it provides an incentive for
3. The imitated behavior itself leads to reinforcing
performance. In his studies, he observed that a rat was
consequences.
able to acquire knowledge of the way through a maze,
4. Consequences of the model’s behavior affect
i.e., to develop a cognitive map, even in the absence of
the observer’s behavior vicariously.
reinforcement.

Contemporary social learning perspective of

Albert Bandura’s Learning Theory
reinforcement and punishment
Social learning theory focuses on the learning that
1. Contemporary theory proposes that both
occurs within a social context. It considers that people
reinforcement and punishment have indirect
learn from one another, including such concepts as
effects on learning.
observational learning, imitation, and modeling. The
2. Reinforcement and punishment influence the
ten-year-old boy Sergio Pelico did watch Saddam’s
extent to which an individual exhibits a
execution on TV and then must have imitated it.
behavior that has been learned.
Among others, Albert Bandura is considered the leading 3. The expectation of reinforcement influences
proponent of this theory. cognitive processes that promote learning.

General principles of social learning theory

1. People can learn by observing the behavior of Cognitive factors in social learning
others and the outcomes of those behavior.
Social learning theory has cognitive factors as well as
2. Learning can occur without a change in
behaviorist factors (actually operant factors).
behavior. Behaviorists say that ;earning has to
 1. How are Tolman’s purposive behaviorism and
Bandura’s Social learning theory able to bridge
1. Learning without performance
behaviorism and cognitive theory?
2. Cognitive processing during learning
3. Expectations
4. Reciprocal causation
5. Modeling
Module 9 Gestalt Psychology

Gestalt Psychology was at the forefront of the cognitive

Behaviors can be learned through modeling.
psychology. It served as the foundation of the cognitive
perspective to learning. It opposed the external and
mechanistic focus of behaviorism. It considered the
Conditions necessary for effective modeling to occur
mental processes and products of perception.
1. Attention
2. Retention
3. Motor reproduction Gestalt theory was the initial cognitive response to
4. Motivation behaviorism. It emphasized the importance of sensory
wholes and the dynamic nature of visual
representation. The term gestalt means ‘form” or
Effects of modeling on behavior: “configuration”. Psychologists Max Wertheimer,
Wolfgang Kohler, and Kurt Koffka studied perception
1. Modeling teaches new behavior and concluded that perceivers (or learners) are not
2. Modeling influences the frequency of previously passive, but rather active. They suggested that learners
learned behaviors do not just collect information as is but they actively
3. Modeling may encourage previously forbidden process and restructure data in order to understand it.
behaviors This is perceptual process. Factors like past experiences,
4. Modeling increases the frequency of similar needs, attitudes, and one’s present situation can affect
behaviors. their perception.

Educational Implications of social Learning theory According to gestalt psychologists, the way we form our
1. Students often learn a great deal simply by perceptions are guided by certaion principles or laws.
observing other people These principles or laws ddetermines what we see or
2. Describing the consequences of behavior can make of things or situations we meet.
effectively increase rhe appropriate behaviors
and decrease inappropriate ones.
3. Modeling provides an alternative to shaping for Gestalt Principles
teaching new behaviors.
1. Law of proximity – elements that are closer
4. Teachers and parents must model appropriate
together will be perceived as a coherent object.
behvaiors and take care that they do not model
2. Law of Similarity – elements that look similar
inappropriate behaviors.
will be perceived as part of the same form
5. Teachers should expose students to a variety of
3. Law of closure – we tend to fill the gaps or
models.
“close” the figures we perceived
4. Law of good continuation - People tend to draw
a good continuous line
Question 5. Law of Good Pragnanz – the stimulus will be
organized into as a good figure as possible
 6. Law of figure/ground – pay attention and Relating to how the mid and the computer work is a
perceive things in the ground first. powerful analogy. Those who program and design
computers aim to make computers solve problems
through processes similar to that of the human mind.
Insight learning
Cognitive psychologists believed that cognitive process
Gestalt psychology adheres to the idea of learning influence the nature of what is learned. They consider
taking place by discovery or insight. The idea of learning learning as largely an internal process, not an external
insight was first discovered by Wolfgang Kohler (on the behavior change (as a behaviorists theories thought).
experiments on apes). The important aspect on learning They look onto how we perceive, receive, store, and
was not reinforcement, but the coordination of thinking retrieve information.
to create new organizations (of materials). This is called
as insight or discovery learning.
IPT describes how learner received information (stimuli)
Kohler proposed the view that insight follows from the
from the environment through the senses and what
characteristics of objects under considerations
takes place in between determines whether the
information will continue to pass through the sensory
register, then the short term and long term memory.
Gestalt Principles and the teaching_learning process

Types of Knowledge
Kurt Lewin’s theory focuses on “life space” adhered to
gestalt psychology. He said that individual has inner and 1. General vs. specific – involves wheter the
outer forces that affect his perception and learning. knowledgeis useful in many taks , or only in one.
2. Declarative – refers to factual knowledge.
inner forces – motivations’ attitudes’ and feelings. Releate to the nature of how things are.
Outer forces – attitude and behavior of the teacher and 3. Procedural – knowledge on how to do things
the classmates 4. Episodic – memories of life events
5. Conditional about “knowing when and why” to
Mario Polito – an Italian psychologist who writes about apply declarative or procedural strategies.
the relevance of gestalt psychology to education.

Stages in the Information Processing Theory

Gestalt theory focuses on the the experience of contact
that occurs in the here and now. It stimulates learning This involves the functioning of senses, sensory register,
as experience and the experience as a source of short-term memory and long-term memory. There are 3
learning. Knowledge is conceived as a continuous stages:
organizationand rearrangement of information 1. Encoding – information is sensed, perceived and
according to needs. attended to
2. Storage – information is stored for either a brief
or extended period of time
Module 10 Information Processing 3. Retrieval – information is brought back at the
Information processing is a cognitive theoretical appropriate time and reactivated for use on a
framework that focuses on how the knowledge is stored current task.
in and is retrieved from ourmemory. It is one of the IPT is plausible is the notion that cognitive processes
most significant cognitive theories in the last century could be described in a stage like model. It follows a
and it has strong implications on the teaching – learning trial along wich information is taken into the memory
process. system, and brought back (recalled) when needed.
Information processing theory
3 main stages in memory process: 2. Interference – new or old information
blocks access to the information in
1. Sensory Register
question.
Hold information for a very brief time
Capacity – mind receives a great amount of
information but it is more that what our mind
Methods for increasing retrieval of information
can hold or perceived.
1. Rehearsal – repeating information verbatim,
Duration – sensory register only holds either metally or aloud.
information for a very brief period – 1-3 2. Meaningful learning – making connection
seconds. between new information and prior
knowledge
Difference in duration based on modality – 3. Organization – making connection to
auditory memory is more persistent than visual various pieces of information
4. Elaboration – adding additional ideas to
The role of attention new information based on what one already
 To bring information into consciousness, it know.
is necessary that we give attention to it. 5. Visual imagery _ froming a picture of the
information
Short – term memory (STM or Working
6. Generation – things we produce are easier
memory)
to remember than things we hear
 It is called working memory because it is where 7. Context – remembering the situation helps
new information is temporarily placed while it is recver information
mentally processed 8. Personalization- making information
 Capacity – can only hold 5 to 9 chuncks of relevant to the individual.
information
 Duration – 18 secods or less
Other memory methods
Long-term memory (LTM)
1. Serial position Effect (recency and primacy)-
The final or permanent storing house for
remember the beginning and end of a list
memory information. Holds information until
more readily
neede again.
2. Part learning – break up the list or chunk of
 Capacity – unlimited information to increase memorization
 Duration – indefinite 3. Distributed practice – break up learning
sessions, rather than cramming all the info
2. Executive Control Process at once ( massed practiced)
It involves executive processor or what is 4. Mnemonic aids – memory techniques that
referred to as metacognitive skills. This learners may employ to help and retrieved
processes guide the flow of information through information more effectively.
the system.
3. Forgetting
Inability to retrive or access information when Module 11 Gagne’s Condiitions of Learning
needed.
Gagne specified several different types of levels of
learning. He stressed different internal and external
2 main ways in which forgetting likely occurs;
conditions are needed for each type of learning, thus his
1. Decay – information is not attendd to, and
theory is called conditions of learning. He also provided
eventually fades away.
nine instruction events that serve as basis for the
sequencing of instruction.
 (d) Rules:
Applying a
Gagne’s theory deals with al aspect of learning. The single
focus of this theory is on the intellectual skills. This relationship to
theory has been utilized to design instructions in all solve a clas of
domains. problems
(e ) Order
Rules: Applying
Gagne’s Principles new
combination of
1. Different instruction is required for different rules to solve
learning outcomes. – gagne named five a complex
categories of learning : verbal information, problem
intellectual skills,cognitive strategies, motor 3. Cognitive Employing
skills, and attitudes strategies personal ways
to guide
Below are the categories of learning with learning,
corresponding learning outcomes and thinking,
acting, and
conditions of learning:
feeling
Category of Example of Conditions 4. Attitudes Choosing
learning learning of personal
outcome learning actions based
1. Verbal Stating 1. Draw on internal
information previously attention states of
learned to understanding
materials such distinctive and feeling
as facts features 5. Motor Executing
concepts, by Skills performance
principles and variations involving the
procedures in print or use of muscles
speech
2. (a)
2. Learning Hierarchies Define what intellectual
Intellectual Dicsriminations
Skills : distinguishing skills are to be learned and a sequence of
objects, instruction.
features, or  the primary significance of the hierarchy is
symbols to identify prerequisites that should be
((b) Concrete completed to facilitate learning at each
concepts: level.
Identifying 3. Events of learning operate on the learner in
classes of ways that constitute the conditions of learning.
concrete  Events should satisfy or provide the
objects, necessary conditions for learning and serve
features, or
as the basis for designing instruction and
events
selecting appropriate media.
(c) Defined
Concepts:
Classifying new The theory includes nine (9) instructional
examples of events and corresponding cognitive
events or ideas processes:
by their
Event of Lesson Rationale
definition
Instruction example/ eliciting
conditions of responses
Learning 8 Assessing Assessing such
1. Gaining Giving Performanc gives instructors
Attention background e a means of
Information testing student
creates validity learning
2 Informing Make the outcomes
the learner learners aware 9 Applying learnin
about the of what to enhancing in real-life
objective expect so that retention situations
they are aware and
and prepared to Transfer
receive
information
3 When learning
Stimulating something new,
recall of accessing prior
prior knowledge is a
learning major factor in
Module 12 Ausubel’s Meaningful Verbal Learning/
the process of
acquiring new Subsumption Theory
information Many educational psychology theories often criticize
4 The goal is the expository or presentational manner of teaching.
Presenting information They say that teachers assume such a major role in
the acquisition,
learning as providers of information, while students
Stimulus therefore, the
remain as passive receivers of information. David
stimulus
employed is Ausubel, instead of criticizing this manner of teaching,
written content proposed ways of improving it. He suggested the use of
and the actual advance organizers. His ideas are contained in his
software theory of meaningful verbal learning.
program
 The theme of Ausubel’s theory is that
5 Providing Teacher
Learner facilitates the knowledge is hierarchically organized; that
Guidnce learning new information is meaningful to the extent
process by that it can be related (attached, anchored)
giving hints and to what is already known
cues when  It is about how individuals learn large
needed amounts of meaningful materials from
6 Eliciting Requiring the verbal/textual presentations in a school
Performanc learner to setting.
e produce based
on what has Focus of Ausubel’s Theory
beed taught
1. Quantity, clarity, and organization of the
enables the
learner’s present knowledge
learner to
confirm hi/her 2. Meaningful learning takes place when an idea
learning to be learned is related in some sensible way to
7 Giving Teacher ideas that the learner already possesses.
Feedback gives
Ausuble’s belief of the use of advance organizer is
feedback to
anchored on the principle of subsumption. The primary
learner after
way of learning is was subsumption, a process by which Module 13 Bruner’s Constructivist Theory
new material is related to relevant ideas in the existing
Jerome Bruner was one of the first proponents of
cognitive structure.
constructivism. A major theme in the theory of Bruner is
Meaningful learning can take place through four that learning is an active process in which learners
processes: construct new ideas or concepts based upon their
current/past knowledge.
Derivative Subsumption: describes the situation in
which the new information you learn is an example of a He gave us important concepts in development of
concept that you have already learned. representations, the spiral curriculum and discovery
learning. These concepts are all in line with the
Correlative subsumption: in order to accommodate this
constructivist approach.
new information, you have to change or expand your
concept

Superordinate learning: the child can give a lot of Bruner’s Main Concepts
examples, but does not know about the concept of it
Representation
until it was taught to her.
He suggested the three (3) ways to represent
Combinatorial learning: the newly acquired knowledge
knowledge.
combines with prior knowledge to enrich the
understanding of both concepts. 1. Enactive representation – represented in the
muscles and involve motor responses
Advance Organizers
2. Iconic representation – learning can be
 Is a major instructional toopl proposed by obtained with the use of models and pictures
Ausubel. It gives you two (2) benefits: 3. Symbolic representation – learner has
1. You will find it easier to connect new developed the ability to think in abstract terms.
information with what you already know This uses symbol system to encode knowledge.
about the topic.
2. You can readily see how the concepts in a
certain topic are related to each other Spiral Curriculum
Types of advance organizers Bruner stressed that teaching should always lead to
boosting cognitive development. The task of the
1. Expository – Describes the new content
instructor is to translate information to be learned into
2. Narrative – present new information in the form
format appropriate to the leaner’s current state of
of a story to students
understanding
3. Skimming – done by looking over the new
material to gain a basic overview In this spiral curriculum, teachers must revisit the
4. Graphic organizer – visuals to set up or outline curriculum by teaching the same content in different
the new information ways depending on student’s developmental levels.
Application of Principles

1. The most general ideas of a subject should be Beyond are the principlels of instruction stated by
presented first and then progressively bruner’s
differentiated in terms of detail and specificity.
It is called Progressive differentiation. 1. Readiness
2. Instructional materials should attempt to 2. Spiral organization
integrate new material with previously 3. Going beyond information given
presented information through cross-
referencing of new and old ideas.
Discovery Learning distillation of most of the principles of cognitive
psychologists.
 Refers to obtaining knowledge for oneself.

 Behaviorism focuses on the external,

Bruner (1996) states that a theory of instruction should
observable behavior.
address four major aspects:
 Learning is explained as a connection between
1. Predisposition to learn the stimulus and the response
2. Structure of knowledge  Reinforcement is the key to learning
3. Effective sequencing
4. Reinforcement  Cognitive view focuses on the internal
processes.
 Learning is an active process
Categorization

He gives much attention to categorization of

“Teaching is not about filling up the pail: it is about
information in the construction of internal cognitive
lighting a fire”
maps.
It signifies that teaching involves giving opportunities
Categories are “rules” that specify four things about
for learners to explore and discover. Learners construct
objects. These are:
their own meaning. Learners generate insights and are
1. Critical attributes “enlightened”.
2. How critical attributes are combined
Constructivism focuses on knowledge construction.
3. Assigns weight to various properties
4. Sets acceptance limits on attributes

Two views of Constructivism

There are several kinds of categories: 1. Individual constructivism – also called cognitive
constructivism. It emphasizes individual,
1. Identity categories – includes objects based on
internal construction of knowledge. It was
their attributes
largely based on Piaget’s theory.
2. Equivalent categories – provide rules for
2. Social constructivism – emphasizes that
combining categories
“knowledge exists in a social context and is
3. Coding systems – categories that serve to
initially shared with others instead of being
recognize sensory input
represented solely in the mind of the
individual”. It was based on Vygotsky’s theory

The principles of Bruner launched the notion that

people interpret the world mostly in terms of
Characteristics of Constructivism
similarities and differences. This is valuable contribution
to how individuals construct their own models or view 1. Learners construct understanding – learners
of the world. construct knowledge in a way that makes sense
to them.
2. New learning depends on current
Module 14 Constructivism: Knowledge Construction/ understanding - Background information is very
Concept Learning important.
3. Learning is facilitated by social interaction –
It discusses constructivism which was mentioned in the “community learners”
previous model of Piaget and Brunner. It is the
 4. Meaningful learning occurs within the authentic  Give negative instances
learning tasks _ an authentic task is one that  Cite a “best example” or a prototype
involves learning activity that involves
constructing knowledge and understanding that
is so akin to the knowledge and understanding Schemas and Scripts.
needed when applied in the real world.
- A schema is an organized bod of knowledge
about something.
- Script is a schema that includes a series of
Organizing Knowledge
predictable events about a specific activity
Concepts - The role of the teacher is to bring learners to
construct their own knowledge such as that
- A way of grouping or categorizing objects or
they have a well organized set of concepts.
events in our minds.
- The concept of “teach” includes a group of
tasks such as model, discuss, illustrate, explain,
Applying Constructivism in Facilitating Learning
assist, and etc.

Concepts as Feature Lists.  Aim to make learners understand a few key

ideas in an in-depth manner, rather than taking
- Learning a concept involves leaning specific up so many topics superficially.
features that characterized positive instance of  Give varied examples
the concepts. Included here is defining features  Provide opportunities of experimentation
and correlational feature.  Provide lots of opportunities for quality
interaction
Defining feature – is a characteristic present in  Have lots of hands-on activities
all instances.  Relate your topic to real-life situations
 Do not depend on the explanation method all
Correlational feature – one that is present in the time.
many positive instances but not essential for
concept membership.

Concept as prototypes

- Prototype is an idea or a visual image of a

‘typical” example

Concepts as Exemplars

- Exemplars represent a variety of examples.

- It allows learners to know that an example
under a concept may have variability.

Making Concept-Learning effective

 Provide a clear definition of the concept

 Make the defining features very concrete and
prominent
 Give a variety of positive instances