Form II Chemistry Lesson

Notes

Mr. Wicklif M. Benjamin

FORM TWO CHEMISTRY NOTES BY WICKLIF M. BENJAMIN

Table of Contents
01. Oxygen ......................................................................................................................... 3
Laboratory preparation of oxygen ........................................................................................................................ 3
Properties of oxygen ............................................................................................................................................ 4
Industrial preparation of oxygen .......................................................................................................................... 5
Uses of oxygen ..................................................................................................................................................... 6
Chemical test of oxygen ....................................................................................................................................... 6
02. Hydrogen ...................................................................................................................... 7
Laboratory preparation of hydrogen .................................................................................................................... 7
Properties of hydrogen......................................................................................................................................... 8
Industrial manufacture of hydrogen ..................................................................................................................... 8
Uses of hydrogen ................................................................................................................................................. 9
Chemical test of hydrogen .................................................................................................................................... 9
03. Water .......................................................................................................................... 10
Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................... 10
Properties of water ............................................................................................................................................ 10
Importance of water .......................................................................................................................................... 11
Water treatment and purification ...................................................................................................................... 12
Importance of water treatment .......................................................................................................................... 13
Chemical test for water ...................................................................................................................................... 13
04. Fuel and energy .......................................................................................................... 14
FUEL ................................................................................................................................................................... 14
Categories of fuels .............................................................................................................................................. 14
Classification of fuels .......................................................................................................................................... 14
Characteristics of a good fuel ............................................................................................................................. 14
Coal .................................................................................................................................................................... 15
Charcoal ............................................................................................................................................................. 16
Gaseous fuels ..................................................................................................................................................... 16
ENERGY .............................................................................................................................................................. 18
Conversion of energy ......................................................................................................................................... 18
Energy value of a fuel ......................................................................................................................................... 19
Uses of fuel ........................................................................................................................................................ 22
Environmental effects on using charcoal and fire woods .................................................................................... 22
BIOMASS ............................................................................................................................................................ 23
BIOGAS............................................................................................................................................................... 24

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WIND ENERGY .................................................................................................................................................... 24

WATER POWER .................................................................................................................................................. 24
05. Atomic structure ......................................................................................................... 25
The atomic theory .............................................................................................................................................. 25
Modern concepts of Dalton’s atomic theory ...................................................................................................... 25
Properties of sub-atomic particles ...................................................................................................................... 25
Electronic arrangement ...................................................................................................................................... 26
Electronic configuration ..................................................................................................................................... 26
Electronic configuration for the first twenty elements ....................................................................................... 27
Atomic number .................................................................................................................................................. 27
Atomic mass ....................................................................................................................................................... 27
Nuclide notation................................................................................................................................................. 28
Isotopes ............................................................................................................................................................. 28
Relative atomic mass (RAM) ............................................................................................................................... 28
06. Periodic classification .................................................................................................. 30
Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................... 30
Modern Periodic Law ......................................................................................................................................... 30
General Periodic trends ...................................................................................................................................... 31
Group I Elements................................................................................................................................................ 32
Group II elements............................................................................................................................................... 33
07. Bonding, formula and nomenclature ........................................................................... 35
Bonding .............................................................................................................................................................. 35
Chemical bonding ............................................................................................................................................... 35
Electrovalent bonding ........................................................................................................................................ 35
Covalent bonding ............................................................................................................................................... 36
Valence .............................................................................................................................................................. 36
Oxidation state ................................................................................................................................................... 37
Radical ............................................................................................................................................................... 38
Chemical formulae ............................................................................................................................................. 39
Formula calculations .......................................................................................................................................... 40
Nomenclature of binary inorganic compounds ................................................................................................... 42

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01. Oxygen
Oxygen is the gas that forms about 21 % by volume of the air we breathe. It is
also present in combination with other substances like water and certain
chemicals.
It is essential element for chemical process like combustion, rusting and
respiration.

Laboratory preparation of oxygen

Common methods used to prepare oxygen in the laboratory are:
➢ Decomposition of hydrogen peroxide
➢ Decomposition of potassium dichlorate
➢ Heating compounds rich in oxygen

The most common method of preparing oxygen in the laboratory is the

decomposition of hydrogen peroxide using the manganese IV oxide as the
catalyst.
In rare case oxygen is prepared in the laboratory by the decomposition of
potassium chlorate using manganese IV oxide as a catalyst. The function of
manganese IV oxide in both cases is to speed up the rate of reaction.

A catalyst is the substance which alter the rate of chemical reaction and
remain chemically unchanged at the end of the reaction.

Reaction:
2H2O2 (aq) MnO2 2H2O (l) + O2 (g)

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Note:
✓ It is possible to collect oxygen by downward displacement of water
because it is slightly soluble in water.

Reaction: 2KClO3(s) MnO2 2KCl (aq) + 3O2 (g)

Properties of oxygen
Physical properties of oxygen gas
o It is colourless, odourless and tasteless gas
o It is slightly soluble in water
o It is about 1.1 denser than air
o It boils at -1830C
o It freezes at -2180C

Chemical properties of oxygen

o It supports combustion
o It is a very strong oxidizing agent
An oxidizing agent is the substance which causes oxidation but itself
is reduced.
o It reacts with metals to form basic oxides
✓ Potassium burn in air with lilac flame to form potassium oxide (white
powder).
4K (s) + O2 (g) → 2K2O(s)

✓ Sodium burns with a yellow flame to form sodium oxide (pale yellow).
4Na (s) + O2 (g) → 2Na2O(s)
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✓ Calcium burns in air with a brick red flame to form calcium oxide
(white solid).
2Ca(s) + O2 (g) → 2CaO(s)

✓ Magnesium burn in air with a bright white flame to produce

magnesium oxide (white powder).
2Mg(s) + O2 (g) → 2MgO(s)

✓ Zinc burns with a dull red flame to produce zinc oxide (yellow or green
flakes that are white when cool).
2Zn(s) + O2 (g) → 2ZnO(s)

✓ Iron glows red with oxygen forming Iron (III) oxide.

4Fe(s) + 3O2 (g) → 2Fe2O3(s)

✓ Copper turns orange then the surface of the product turns black when
burn in air.
2Cu(s) + O2 (g) → 2CuO(s)

o It reacts with non-metals to form acidic oxides

✓ Carbon burns slowly with yellow white flame to produce carbon
dioxide.
C(s) + O2 (g) → CO2 (g)

✓ Phosphorus burns brightly to produce a cloud of white smoke of

phosphorus oxide.
2P(s) + O2 (g) → P2O5 (s)

✓ Sulphur melts and burn with a blue flame to form a white gas of
sulphur dioxide.
S(s) + O2 (g) → SO2 (g)

Industrial preparation of oxygen

The common method for preparing oxygen in large scale is by fractional
distillation of liquefied air.

Fractional distillation of air

Air is filtered to remove dust. It is then cooled to -2000C. At this temperature it
is a liquid. As the air liquefies:
▪ The water vapour condenses and is removed using specific
filters.
▪ The carbon dioxide freezes at -790C and is removed.

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▪ The oxygen liquefied at -1830C. The liquid nitrogen and oxygen

mixture is then separated into the two components by
fractional distillation.
▪ The nitrogen liquefies at -196 0C.

Uses of oxygen
✓ It is used in respiration process.
✓ In medical or hospital it is used:
• As aid in breathing
• In incubator for premature babies

✓ In transport oxygen is used:

• As oxidizer for rocket fuel
• For respiration in spacecraft and submarines

✓ In chemical process it is used:

• To manufacture chemicals e.g. acids and oxides
• In combustion process
• In oxidation to remove impurities

✓ It is used in manufacture of synthetic fuels.

✓ It can also be used in:
• Manufacture of steel from iron
• Metal cutting
• Welding
• Glass making
• Treatment of sewage plants

Chemical test of oxygen

When a burning lighten wooden splint is brought to the mouth of a gas jar
containing oxygen gas, the gas relight the glowing splint.

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02. Hydrogen
Hydrogen is the lightest and the most abundant element in the universe. It is
in fact the main element from which the sun and stars are made.

Hydrogen gas is lightest than air and therefore rises in the atmosphere.
Hydrogen is very reactive element. This is why it is found in combination with
other elements. It is found in compounds such as water, organic compounds
like coal and petroleum, acid and bases.

Laboratory preparation of hydrogen

The common methods used to prepare hydrogen in the laboratory includes:
• The reaction of dilute acids with some metals
• The reaction of water with certain metals
• The reaction of water with hot carbon
• The electrolysis of water

The most common method of preparing hydrogen in the laboratory is the

reaction of dilute acids on metals.
Example: The action of dilute hydrochloric acid on zinc metal

2HCl (aq) + Zn (s) → ZnCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)

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Properties of hydrogen
Physical properties
▪ It is tasteless, colourless and odourless gas
▪ It is lighter than air
▪ It is slightly soluble in water
▪ It does not support combustion

Chemical properties
▪ It combines easily with other chemical substances at high temperatures
▪ It does not usually react with other elements at room temperature
▪ It is highly flammable and burn with a blue flame
▪ A mixture of hydrogen and oxygen explodes when lit
▪ It reacts with oxides and chlorides of many metals to produce free metals
▪ It reacts slowly with oxygen to produce water
2H2 (g) + O2 (g) → 2H2O (l)

▪ It is neither acidic nor basic

Note:
✓ Calcium chloride is used to dry the hydrogen gas by absorbing any
moisture it contains.
✓ Hydrogen is a good reducing agent. This means it removes oxygen from
substance like metal oxides.
Example: Copper II oxide is reduced to copper metal
CuO (s) + H2 (g) → Cu (s) + H2O (l)
✓ Oxidation is the chemical removal of hydrogen from a substance or the
chemical addition of oxygen to a substance. The substance which cause
oxidation is called an oxidizing agent.
✓ Reduction is the chemical removal of oxygen from a substance or the
chemical addition of hydrogen to a compound. The substance which
cause reduction is called reducing agent.

Industrial manufacture of hydrogen

Pure hydrogen is manufactured by electrolysis of water or by steam reforming of
natural gas.

I: Electrolysis of water
Electrolysis of water is the process which decomposes water into oxygen gas by
means of an electric current. In this process hydrogen gas and oxygen gas are
produced.

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II: Steam Reforming of Natural Gas

The most common method of producing commercial bulk hydrogen is called
Steam reforming of natural gas also referred to as Steam Methane Reforming
(SMR). It is a method of producing compounds like methane.
At high temperatures (700 0C to 1100 0C) steam react with methane to yield
carbon monoxide and hydrogen.

Steam + methane → carbon monoxide + Hydrogen gas

Uses of hydrogen
✓ It is used to manufacture ammonia through the Haber process
3H2 (g) + N2 (g) 2NH3 (g)

✓ It is used to manufacture margarine

✓ It is used to produce oxy-hydrogen flame which can be used in welding
and metal cutting
✓ It is used by meteorologists to fill weather balloons
✓ It is used in manufacture of hydrochloric acid
✓ It is used to prepare water gas which used as a fuel

Relationship between some uses of hydrogen and its properties

Use Property
Manufacture of ammonia Readily combines with elements e.g.
Nitrogen
Production of hydrogen flame It is highly flammable
Manufacture of HCl Readily react with other chemical
substance
Production of water gas It is highly flammable
In weather balloons It is lighter than air
Manufacture of margarine It is a reducing agent

Chemical test of hydrogen

When a lighten wooden splint brought near the gas jar containing hydrogen, it
burn with a “pop –sound”

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03. Water
Introduction
Water is a very important commodity. It is essential for the sustenance of all
living things. It is also a home for some animals and plants. Living things also
contain water within their bodies.

Water on the Earth occurs in three main states. That is

✓ Solid e.g. ice, snow, hail
✓ Liquid e.g. dew, rain
✓ Vapour e.g. mist, steam, clouds
About 97% of all water on the earth is salty water, while only 3% is fresh water.
Water is not lost but is continuously being recycled all around the globe in a
system called water cycle (hydrological cycle).
Water cycle is made up of four parts:
Evaporation (including transpiration)
Condensation
Precipitation
Collection

Evaporation
This is the process whereby water vapour or streams, rivers, lakes or ocean
and go into the air. Plants lose water to air through transpiration while animals
and human being lose water to air through perspiration or sweating.

Condensation
This is the process in which water vapour in the air gets cold and changes back
to liquid forming clouds.

Precipitation
This occur when so much water has condensed than the air cannot hold any
more. The clouds gets heavy and water falls back to the earth in different forms
such as rain, hail or snow.

Collection
This takes place when water falls back to earth as precipitation. Water may end
up the oceans, lakes or rivers or on land. When it falls on land it will normally
soak into the soil and become part of the ground water which plants and
animals use.

Properties of water
Physical properties
▪ Pure water is colourless, odourless and tasteless
▪ It is the substance that occurs naturally in all states of matter i.e. (solid,
liquid and gas)
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▪ Pure water freezes at 0 0C and boils at 100 0C

▪ Water dissolves more substances than any other liquid and is usually
called the universal solvent
▪ It has high surface tension
▪ It has a high specific heat index
▪ It expands when it freezes
▪ It is miscible with many liquids example ethanol

Chemical properties
▪ Pure water is neutral.
▪ Cold water reacts with some metals to form metal hydroxide and liberate
hydrogen gas.
Example: 2Na (s) + 2H2O (l) → 2NaOH (aq) + H2 (g)

▪ Some metals react with steam to give their respective oxides and
hydrogen gas.

Importance of water
✓ We use water on day-to-day basis for various purposes. These include:
• Drinking
• Cooking food
• Cleaning our surroundings
• Washing our bodies and clothes
✓ Water is used for transportation of goods and people using vessels such
as boats and ships.
✓ Water bodies such as lakes, rivers and oceans are also used for
recreational purposes such as swimming, sport fishing and ocean sports
such as scuba diving.
✓ Water is used in large scale for various economic activities such as:
• Manufacturing of goods like chemicals, food and beverages, textiles
and paper
• In agriculture, water is used for irrigation, in animal dips and for
washing animals
• In mining, water is used as a solvent in extraction of certain
minerals as means of carrying away impurities
• In energy production, large water bodies especially rivers and
artificial lakes (dams) are used to generate electrical energy
• In construction, the construction of buildings and roads make a use
of large quantity of water.
• In fishing activities, water bodies such as ocean, lakes and rivers
are used for fishing.

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Water treatment and purification

Water treatment is the process of making water usable for domestic, industrial,
medical and other purposes. The main aim of water treatment process is to
remove existing contaminants in water, thus improving it for safe use.
Water purification is the removal of contaminants from treated water to produce
drinking water that is pure enough for human consumption.

Substances that are removed in water include bacteria, algae, fungi and
minerals such as iron and sulphur and human made chemical pollutants.

Domestic water purification

Simple methods used for domestic water purification are:
1. Boiling
Water is heated for at least five minutes before heating can be stopped.
Boiling helps to kill disease causing organisms such as bacteria.

2. Use of purifiers
A recommended amount of the purifiers put in the specific amount of
water in a container. Then water is shaken or stirred well then left to
settle for at least twenty minutes before it can be safe for drinking.

3. Use of commercial filters

These filters work by having the water pass through a charcoal or
ceramic element that purifies the water.

Urban water treatment

Urban water treatment involves six stages that are:
Screening
Water from source (ocean, lake, rivers) is screened to remove floating
substances.

Reservoir
Water is stored high up so it flows through gravitation

Primary filtration
Water is passed through the filter to remove coarse sand. Aluminium
sulphate is added to remove smaller particles. The use of Aluminium
sulphate is to cause the impurities to dump together and sink to the
bottom of the container. This process is called coagulation.

Secondary filtration
Finer sand and smallest particles are removed

Disinfection / chlorination
At this stage chemicals like chlorine are applied to kill harmful bacteria.
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Storage
Soft water is stored ready for use.

Importance of water treatment

✓ It helps to avoid diseases such as diarrhea, typhoid, cholera and other
illness.
✓ Treated water ensures accurate results from experiments in laboratories
and effective treatment in medical facilities.
✓ Treated water ensures the manufactured products in industries are safe
for consumption.
✓ Treated water is more efficient to use for cleaning purposes in industries
and domestic.

Chemical test for water

o Water turns cobalt chloride paper from blue to pink.
o Water turns anhydrous copper II sulphate from white to blue

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04. Fuel and energy

FUEL
A fuel is any combustible material which on burning in the air gives a large
amount of heat that can be used economically for domestic and industrial
purposes.

Categories of fuels
Fuels may be classified on the basis of their occurrence (or preparation) and
their physical state.

On the bases of their occurrence, fuels can be classified as natural (primary)

and artificial (secondary) fuels.
Natural fuels occurs in nature. They include wood, coal, peat, petroleum
and natural gas.
Artificial fuels are either manufactured in the industries or derived from the
primary fuels by refining. They include coke, kerosene, petrol, coal gas and
producer gas.

On the basis of their physical state, fuels can be solid, liquid or gaseous.

Classification of fuels
Physical state Primary/natural Secondary/artificial
Solid Wood, coal Charcoal, coke
Liquid Crude petroleum Petrol, diesel, kerosene,
biodiesel
Gaseous Natural gas Liquefied petroleum gas
(LPG), coal gas, water
gas, hydrogen

Characteristics of a good fuel

✓ A good fuel should have a high energy value
✓ A good fuel should burn with a moderate velocity for a continuous supply
of heat
✓ It should have an average ignition point
✓ It should have a low content of non-combustible material
✓ It should not give off poisonous gases during combustion
✓ It should be readily available in large quantities
✓ It should be affordable to most people
✓ It should be easy and safe to transport and store
✓ It should not have harmful effects on the environment during its
production and its use.

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Energy value of a fuel is determined by the amount of energy produced per unit
mass of the fuel. This is called the heat value of the fuel.
Ignition point is the temperature to which the fuel must be heated before it
starts burning.

Coal
Coal is the most important solid fuel. It is a fossil fuel formed by the anaerobic
(without oxygen) decay of plants that lived millions of years ago. The four major
components of coal are moisture, volatile matter, ash and fixed carbon.

Volatile matter is the material that is driven off when coal is heated to about
950 0C in the absence of air. It consists of gases and low boiling point organic
compounds that condense into oils when cooled and tar.

Coke is the material left after the volatile matter driven off. Ash on the other
hand is the non-combustible material left after coal is burnt.

There are different types of coal that vary in composition and properties. The
most important types of coal are peat, lignite, bituminous (soft) and anthracite
(hard) coal.

Destructive distillation of coal

Destructive distillation is the process through which organic fuels such as
wood, coal and oil shale are decomposed by heating them in the absence of air
(oxygen) to obtain useful products such as coke, charcoal, oils and gases.

The main aim of destructive distillation of coal is to get rid of the volatile
matter. Coal that contains a large amount of volatile matter burns with smoky
flame and has a low energy value.

Destructive distillation takes place in the absence of oxygen (in an airtight

oven) and prevents the coal from burning. The remaining material (coke) is
nearly pure carbon. This is the most widely used coal product. It is mainly
used in metal extraction furnaces.

Destructive distillation of coal is generally carried out in two types of kilns.

These are the beehive kiln and the Otto Hoffman kiln.

Beehive Kiln
This is the earliest and the cheapest process of distilling coal. The kiln is a
dome-shaped structure made up of bricks. It has two openings, one at the top
for charging (adding) the coal and the other on the side to discharge (remove)
coke. A side door is also used for supplying air to ignite the coal. This process
yields about 60% coke by mass.

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Otto Hoffman Kiln

Otto Hoffman kiln has advantage over the beehive kiln. This is because the
byproducts of the distillation process (for example ammonia, coal gas, benzoyl
oil and tar) are also recovered. The Otto Hoffman Kiln consists of a chamber of
narrow silica chambers separated by spaces for burning gas. Each chamber
has a changing hole at the top, a gas outlet and doors at each end for
discharging coke. Hoffman kiln is about 75 % of coal by mass.

Charcoal
Charcoal is made by the dry distillation of wood. The dry distillation of wood is
done at a temperature of between 4000 and 4500 0C in an earth-pit kiln or
earth-mound kiln.

Earth-pit kiln
In the earth-pi kiln, the wood is heaped in a hemispherical pile in a central pit.
It is then covered with earth and sod, leaving only few small air holes near the
bottom.
The wood is lit at the center and allowed to burn until the whole pile is on fire.
A smoldering combustion takes place, utilizing the oxygen and hydrogen
components of the wood fiber. The products of this combustion are water,
carbon dioxide and volatile organic compounds which escape into the
atmosphere.
The holes for allowing air are then closed. The pit is kept covered until the fire
goes off and the charcoal cool. All the volatile matter is driven out in the
process. The yield of charcoal is only 20 % by weight and 75 % by volume of
the wood.

Earth-mound kiln
The earth-mound kiln works in the same way as the earth-pit kiln. However,
instead of pit, the wood is heaped in a pile above the ground surface. The
earth-mound kiln is preferred where the soil is rocky or the water table is close
to the surface.
The good charcoal is porous, brittle and retains the form of the wood. It burns
with a non-luminous flame and is easily ignited.

Gaseous fuels
The most important gaseous fuels used in industries are water gas and
producer gas.

Producer gas
Producer gas is a mixture of carbon monoxide and nitrogen. It is produced by
burning a solid carbonaceous fuel, for example coke, in a limited supply of air.
Carbonaceous fuels are fuels that contain a high proportion of carbon.

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Production:
Producer gas is produced (manufactured) in a producer furnace.
The furnace consists of a large air tight cylindrical vessel made of
mild steel. The vessel is lined on the inside with fire bricks.
At the bottom, there is a pipe for blowing in air and an opening for
removing ash. Coal is added through a hopper at the top and
producer gas comes out through an exist near the top.

Properties, composition and uses

Properties of producer gas
▪ It is poisonous gas
▪ It is insoluble in water
▪ It is heavier than air

Composition of producer gas

Gas Percentage composition

Nitrogen 52-55 %
Carbon monoxide 22-30 %
Hydrogen 8-12 %
Carbon dioxide 3%
Methane Trace amount

Uses of producer gas

• It is used as fuel for heating open-earth furnaces (used in steel and glass
manufacturing), muffle furnaces and retorts (used in the production of
coke and coal gas).
• Provides a reducing atmosphere in certain metal-extraction operations.

Water gas
Water gas is a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen, with a small amount
of carbon dioxide.

Production:
Water gas is produced in a water gas generator by the action of
steam on a bed of coke at 1000 0C.

Properties, composition and uses of water gas

Properties of water gas
▪ It burns with a non-luminous blue flame hence is called blue water gas
▪ It has an energy value of about 13 628KJ/m3
▪ It burns with a high temperature flame of about 1 200 0C

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Composition of water gas

Gas Percentage composition
Hydrogen 48 %
Carbon monoxide 44 %
Carbon dioxide 4.2 %
Nitrogen 3%
Methane 0.8 %

Uses of water gas

▪ Used as an industrial fuel especially in the making of steel
▪ It is used in the preparation of hydrogen

ENERGY
An energy is the capacity or ability of a body or system to do work. The SI unit
of energy is Joule (J). Energy exists in major two forms, namely potential and
kinetic energy.

Potential Energy is the energy possessed by the body due to its position or
state. Example chemical energy, elastic energy, nuclear energy and gravitational
energy.

Kinetic Energy is the energy possessed by a body due to its motion. The
motion could be of waves, electrons, molecules or the object itself. Example
electric energy, radiant energy, thermal energy and sound energy.

The sum of kinetic and potential energy is mechanical energy.

Conversion of energy
The principle of conversion of energy states that “Energy can neither be created
nor destroyed but it can be transformed from one form to another.”

Conversion of energy from one form to another

Mechanical energy to electrical energy
- A hydroelectric power plant converts mechanical energy into electrical
energy.
- Electrical energy can also be generated from the wind. This is done using
the windmill. The combination of the windmill and dynamo converts
mechanical energy from the wind to electrical energy.

Electrical energy to heat energy

- Appliances that produce heat when connected to a source of electricity
such as electric cooker, electric iron, heaters and electric bulb converts
electrical energy to heat energy.

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Electrical energy to heat energy

- When a source of current is connected to an electric motor, a rotational
motion is produced in the motor. In this way, electrical energy is converted
to mechanical energy.

Solar energy to other forms of energy

- The energy from the sun is called solar energy.
- In photocells or solar panel, solar energy is converted to electrical energy.
- In solar cookers, a shiny parabolic metal surface is used to focus sun rays
to produce heat. Solar energy is therefore converted to heat energy.

Electrical energy to sound energy

- In an electric bell, electrical energy is converted to sound energy.

Energy value of a fuel

Energy value of a fuel is the total amount of heat liberated by the complete
combustion of a unit mass of the fuel in air (oxygen). It is given as the ratio of
total energy liberated to the mass of the fuel used.

Mathematically:
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑙𝑖𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 (𝐾𝐽 𝑜𝑟 𝐽)
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 =
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑 (𝐾𝑔 𝑜𝑟 𝑔)
The SI unit of energy value is Joule per gram (J/g) or Kilojoule per Kilogram
(KJ/Kg).

When measuring heat energy of the substance, an instrument called

calorimeter is used. This is an insulated container used to minimize heat
losses.

Procedures on how to calculate energy value of a substance

✓ Calculate the mass of the substance
The mass of the substance can be calculated from the density of the
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
substance. i.e. 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 ; Mass = volume x density

✓ Calculate the quantity of heat liberated or absorbed by the lamp

The quantity of heat is given as the product of mass, specific capacity
and change in temperature
i.e. Q = MC T
Where:
M = mass of the substance
C = specific heat capacity
T = change in temperature

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✓ Work out energy value

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑙𝑖𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 (𝐾𝐽 𝑜𝑟 𝐽)
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 =
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑 (𝐾𝑔 𝑜𝑟 𝑔)

Examples:
01. The following results were obtained in an experiment to measure
the heat value of biodiesel.
Initial temperature of water = 24.7 0C
Final temperature of water = 68.5 0C
Mass of biodiesel burnt = 56 g
The volume of water used in the experiment was 12 litres, determine the
heat value of the biodiesel.
(Specific heat capacity of water = 4.18 KJKg-10C -1, density of water =
1000 Kg/m3)

Solution:
Data given:
Initial temperature of water = 24.7 0C
Final temperature of water = 68.5 0C
Mass of biodiesel burnt = 56 g
Volume of water = 12 litres
Specific heat capacity of water = 4.18 KJKg-1 0C -1,
Density of water = 1000 Kg/m3

From:
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑙𝑖𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 (𝐾𝐽 𝑜𝑟 𝐽)
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 =
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑 (𝐾𝑔 𝑜𝑟 𝑔)

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑥 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑥 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒

𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 =
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑 (𝐾𝑔 𝑜𝑟 𝑔)
But mass = density of water x volume of water
Then,
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑥 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑥 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑥 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 =
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑 (𝐾𝑔 𝑜𝑟 𝑔)

Change in temperature = large temperature – small temperature

= 68.5 – 24.7 0C
= 43.8 0C

Converting the volume of water into m3,

1 m3 = 1000 litres, 12 litres = 0.012 m3

Convert mass of fuel into kilogram

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1 Kg = 1000 g, 56 g = 0.056 kg

Then,

𝑘𝑔 𝐾𝐽
1000 3 𝑥 0.012 𝑚3 𝑥 4.18 𝑥 43. 8 0 𝐶
𝑚 𝑘𝑔 0 C
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 =
0.056 𝑘𝑔

= 39 232 KJ/Kg
The heat value of the biodiesel is 39 232 KJ/Kg

02. A mass of 20 g of petrol was burnt in air. The heat produced was
used to heat 2.5 litres of water. Given that the heat value of petrol was
43 640 KJ/Kg, what was the temperature change in water?

Solution
Data given:
Mass of a petrol (m) = 20 g
Volume of water heated (v) = 2.5 litres
Heat value of petrol (H) = 43 640 KJ/Kg
Required:
Temperature change (∆Q) =?

From:
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑙𝑖𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑
Energy value = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
𝑀𝐶∆Q
Energy value = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
But, from 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
Mass of water = density x volume
Mass of water = 1000 kg/m3 x 2.5 litre
Mass of water = (1000 x 2.5/1000) kg
= 2.5 kg
Note: 1 m = 1000 dm3/litres
3

Mass of fuel = (20/1000) kg ➔ 0.02 kg

Since, 1kg = 1000 g
Then,
2.5 𝐾𝑔 𝑥 4.18 𝐾𝐽𝐾𝑔−1 𝑘 −1 𝑥 ∆Q
43 640 KJ/kg = 0.02 𝐾𝑔

43 640 𝑥 0.02
∆Q =
2.5 𝑥 4.18

872.8
∆Q =
10.45
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= 83.49 K
➢ The temperature change is 83.49 K

Try
01. Kerosene has a heat value of 43 400 KJ/Kg. What volume of
kerosene is required to raise the temperature of 20 litres of water
from 24 0C to 100 0C? Given specific heat capacity of water = 4.18
KJKg-1K-1, density of water = 1000 Kg/m3, density of kerosene = 810
Kg/m3

Uses of fuel
Fuel Uses
Wood, coal and charcoal - Used domestically as heat source
for cooking, boiling and ironing.

Petrol, diesel and liquefied petroleum - Used for running industrial

gases plants, cars, planes, ships and
other running trucks

Kerosene - Used in kerosene stove for

cooking
- It is used as source of light in
kerosene lamp

Coal - Used in power plants to generate

electricity
- Used in industries to make dye,
insecticides and fertilizers

Environmental effects on using charcoal and fire woods

Burning of charcoal and fire woods, causes various effects in our environment.
These include:
Deforestation
Drought
Floods
Diseases (malnutrition)

Alternative source of energy

Sources of energy can be divided into renewable and non-renewable sources.
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Renewable sources of energy are those which are continuously being replaced
within short period of time. Example solar and wind energy.

Non-renewable sources of energy are those that cannot be replenished within

short period of time. Example fossil fuels such as oil, natural gas and coal and
nuclear energy.

Solar energy
Solar energy refers to the energy that is obtained from sunlight. This type of
energy is clean since it does not release harmful gases into the atmosphere.
Solar energy can be tapped in various ways. These include:
• Generating electricity using photovoltaic solar cells
• Generating electricity using concentrated solar power
• Heating and cooking using parabolic mirror that focus the sun’s rays to a
central position
• Heating and cooling using solar chimneys

BIOMASS
Biomass refers to the organic matter in living plant material. This type of
energy is made of organic compounds that are produced in growing plants.
Biomass is actually solar energy stored in organic matter. As trees and plants
grow, they use solar energy to make food (carbohydrates) through the process
of photosynthesis.
Carbohydrates are those organic compounds that make up biomass. When
plants die, the process of decay releases the energy stored in the
carbohydrates. Biomass is a renewable energy source because the growth of
new plants and trees replenishes the supply.
The use of biomass for energy does not cause an increase of carbon dioxide in
the atmosphere. In addition, using biomass to produce energy is often a way of
disposing of waste materials.
Biomass can be used directly as fuel or indirectly to produce liquid biofuel.
Agriculturally produced biomass fuels such as biodiesel, ethanol and bagasse
(a byproduct of sugarcane processing) can be used in internal combustion of
engines and boilers.

The main advantages of biofuels are:

✓ They are carbon neutral thus they contribute vary little to global
warming unlike fossil fuels
✓ Their supply is almost limitless since biofuels are produced from various
sources such as straw, timber, manure, rice husks, sugar cane, flaxseed
and palm oil.

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BIOGAS
Biogas is a fuel gas derived from decomposing biological waste. Biogas can
easily be produced from both industrial and domestic waste such as paper
production and sugar production waste, sewage and animal waste.
The waste matter is put together and allowed to ferment naturally, thus
producing biogas. This can be done by converting the exiting waste disposal
channels in biogas plants. When a biogas plant has extracted all the methane
it can, the remains can be used as fertilizer.

WIND ENERGY
Wind is moving air. Wind energy is usually harnessed using windmills. The
wind turns the blades of the windmills, which in turn run turbines and
produce energy.
Areas where winds are very strong and constant such as offshore and high
altitude sites are preferred locations for tapping this form of energy.
Wind power is a renewable source of energy which does not release harmful
gases such as carbon dioxide and methane into the atmosphere.

Note:
Wind strength near the earth’s surface varies and thus it cannot
guarantee continuous power supply unless combined with other sources
of energy.

WATER POWER
Water possesses energy in form of kinetic energy due to motion or thermal
energy resulting from temperature differences. This energy can be harnessed
and put into the use.

Forms of water Energy

✓ Hydroelectric energy, this is the energy produced in hydroelectric
power plants.
✓ Tidal stream energy, this is the energy resulting from the flow of tides.
✓ Wave energy, this is the energy from the movement of waves.
✓ Ocean thermal energy, this is the energy resulting from the
temperature differences between the warm surface of the ocean and the
colder deep parts of the ocean.

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05. Atomic structure

An atom is the smallest particle of an element that has all the chemical
properties of that element.

The atomic theory

In 1803, an Englishman called John Dalton developed the theory about the
atom. The theory consisted of five points:
1. Matter is made up of tiny particles called atoms, which cannot be split
into smaller particles.
2. Atom can neither be created nor destroyed.
3. The atoms of any one element are identical and have the same chemical
properties and the same mass.
4. The atoms of the given elements are different from those of any other
element.
5. Atoms of one element can combine with the atoms of another element to
form compound atoms.

The modern technology has provided evidence on the atoms through

experiments that Dalton could not do. This has resulted to modification of
Dalton’s theory.

Modern concepts of Dalton’s atomic theory

o Atoms can be created or destroyed by means of nuclear reactions.
o Atoms of one element (isotopes) differ slightly in mass.
o Atom is made up of even smaller sub-atomic particles (proton, electron
and neutron).
o Atoms of different elements may combine in many different ratios to form
complex compounds.

Properties of sub-atomic particles

Proton
✓ It is a positively charged particle
✓ It is found in the nucleus of an atom
✓ Its symbol is P
✓ Its charge is +1
✓ Its real mass is 1.16726 x 10-24 Kg

Neutron
✓ It is a neutral particle of an atom (it has no charge)
✓ It is found in the nucleus of an atom
✓ Its symbol is n
✓ Its charge is 0
✓ Its real mass is 1.6750 x 10-24 Kg

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Electron
✓ It is a negatively charged particle of an atom
✓ It is found around the nucleus
✓ Its symbol is e
✓ Its charge is -1
✓ Its real mass is 9.109 x 10-28 Kg

Electronic arrangement
In 1913, Neils Bohr suggested that electrons orbit the nucleus in a special
regions called shells. These shells are known as energy levels and are at fixed
distance from the nucleus.
Each shell can only hold a specific number of electrons. The maximum number
of electrons held within each shell can be determined by the formula 2n2

The figure shows the first four shells represented by letters K, L, M and N
respectively.

Electronic configuration
Electronic configuration is the arrangement of electrons in different shells.
Notes:
✓ An atom whose outermost shell contain its maximum number of
electrons is said to be stable atom. This is because it has the
complete or full filled outermost shell.
✓ Electrons are not fixed at particular positions within the sphere or
shell. They move extremely fast and can be at any point within the
sphere at any moment.
✓ Bohr finalized a table that has more information about elements.
This table is called the modern periodic table.

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✓ The number of electrons (or of protons) in an atom gives the element

its number in the periodic table.

Electronic configuration for the first twenty elements

Element Symbol No. of electrons Electronic

configuration
Hydrogen H 1 1
Helium He 2 2
Lithium Li 3 2:1
Beryllium Be 4 2:2
Born B 5 2:3
Carbon C 6 2:4
Nitrogen N 7 2:5
Oxygen O 8 2:6
Fluorine F 9 2:7
Neon Ne 10 2:8
Sodium Na 11 2:8:1
Magnesium Mg 12 2:8:2
Aluminium Al 13 2:8:3
Silicon Si 14 2:8:4
Phosphorus P 15 2:8:5
Sulphur S 16 2:8:6
Chlorine Cl 17 2:8:7
Argon Ar 18 2:8:8
Potassium K 19 2:8:8:1
Calcium Ca 20 2:8:8:2

Atomic number
Atomic number is the number of protons in an atom.
The number of proton is equal to the number of electrons in the atom, the
atomic number also indicates the number of electrons in the atom.

Atomic mass
Atomic mass is the sum of the protons and neutrons in one atom of an
element. It is also called mass number or nucleon number.

Mathematically:
A=P+N
Where:
A = Atomic mass
P = Protons number or atomic number
N = Neutron number

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Nuclide notation
When an atom of the element is represented by 𝐴𝑍𝑋 where,
A = Atomic mass
Z = Protons number or atomic number
X = the symbol of an element, then it is said to be in nuclide notation.
Example 11𝐻 for Hydrogen and 115𝐵 for Boron.

Isotopes
Isotopes are the atoms of the same element having the same number of protons
(atomic number) but different atomic number.
Example of isotopes
Element Symbol Atomic no. Isotopes Abundance
Hydrogen H 1 1
1 𝐻 Hydrogen 99.99%

2
1𝐻 deuterium 0.01%

3
1𝐻 Tritium Very rare
Carbon C 6 12
6𝐶 98.9%

13
6𝐶 1.1%

14
6𝐶 Trace

Chlorine Cl 17 35
17𝐶 𝑙 75%

37
17𝐶 𝑙 25%

Relative atomic mass (RAM)

The relative atomic mass is the mass of an atom obtained by comparing it with
the arbitrary mass of a carbon-12 atom. It is calculated as the sum of the
product of atomic masses of the given atoms with their corresponding
abundances.

Mathematically:
RAM = ∑ (atomic mass x abundances)
Note:
For the first twenty elements in exception of hydrogen, lithium,
beryllium, boron, nitrogen, phosphorus and chlorine; the RAM of element
can be approximated.
o For even proton number ≈ 2 x proton number
o For odd and prime proton number ≈ {(2 x proton number) + 1}

Examples:

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01. An atom Q has a mass number of 49 and an atomic number of 24.

What is its neutron number? What is the number of electrons in the
atom Q?

Solution:
49
Write the given atom in nuclide notation 24𝑄 , then from
A = P + N; N➔ A – P
N = 49 – 24
N = 25
The neutron number is 25

The number of protons = number of electrons of an atom = 24

The number of electrons is 24

02. Calculate the relative atomic mass of chlorine given the two
isotopes of chlorine as 3517𝐶𝑙 (75%) and 17𝐶𝑙 (25%).
37

Solution:
From, RAM = ∑ (atomic mass x abundances)
75 25
RAM = (35 x ) + (37 x ) ➔ 35.5
100 100
The relative atomic mass of chlorine is 35.5

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06. Periodic classification

Introduction
Chemists have for a long time looked at ways of grouping elements with similar
properties. The simplest of these has been classifying elements as either metals
or non-metals.

In 1866, a British chemist John Newlands, thought of the idea of arranging

elements in the order of their increasing atomic masses. At this time the noble
gases had not been discovered.
Newlands noticed that an element tended to display characteristics similar to
the eighth element in front of it. He arranged the elements in columns
according to a law he called the law of octaves.
His classification was unfortunate since he grouped certain elements together
and they had very different characteristics. For example, oxygen was placed in
the same group with Iron and sulphur. The idea was rejected by many.

A Russian chemist, Dimitri Mendeleev later developed Newland’s ideas and

convinced other chemists to use them. He intended to illustrate recurring
trends (periodic trends) in the properties of elements. In 1869, Mendeleev
summarized his periodic Law that states that; “The properties of elements
are a periodic function of their relative atomic masses.” This resulted in
an early version of periodic table of elements. A vertical column of elements is
called a group and a horizontal row is called a period.
Mendeleev left gaps in his periodic table predicting that there were existing
elements yet to be discovered. His table did not include the noble gases, which
had not been discovered at the time.

Modern Periodic Law

The modern periodic table of elements is a table of elements arranged
systematically according to their increasing atomic numbers. It is a result of
several modifications to Mendeleev’s Periodic table. The modifications were
made as new elements were discovered and new theories developed to explain
the chemical behavior of elements.
The modern periodic law states that; “The properties of elements are
periodic function of their atomic numbers.”
The layout of the periodic table demonstrates recurring (periodic) chemical
properties. The periodic recurrence of similar properties when elements are
arranged according to their atomic numbers is called periodicity.

In the periodic table:

✓ Elements are arranged in groups and periods
✓ The groups are the vertical columns of elements
✓ The periods are the horizontal rows of elements

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✓ Elements of the same number of electrons in the outermost shell are in

the same group
✓ Elements with the same number of shells are in the same period
✓ Groups are numbered using Roman numerals and they are numbered
from left to right.
✓ Periods are numbered using Arabic numerals and they are numbered
from top to bottom.
✓ The modern periodic table has eighteen groups and seven periods, but at
our level we will see only eight groups and four periods of the periodic
table.

Consider the following part of the modern periodic table

I II III IV V VI VII VIII
1 H He
2 Li Be B C N O F Ne
3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
4 K Ca

▪ The metallic elements in group I are called the alkali metals

because they react with water to form alkaline solution.
▪ Even though hydrogen is placed in group I, it is not an alkali
metal. For this reason, different versions of the periodic table
place it above the group I or VII.
▪ Group II elements are called alkaline earth metals.
▪ Group VII elements are usually referred to as halogens (“Salt
former” in Greek). This is because they react with metals to form
compounds called salts.
▪ Group VIII elements are usually referred to as group O elements.
They are called noble gases or inert gases and all their shells are
completely filled up.
▪ They were formally called inert gases because they do not readily
form compounds.
▪ The basis of their general physical and chemical properties, nearly
every element in the periodic table may be termed either as a
metal or non-metal. However a few elements tend to display both
metallic and non-metallic characteristics. They are referred to as
Metalloids, and they include Boron (B), silicon (Si), Germanium
(Ge), Arsenic (As), Antimony (Sb) and tellurium (Te).

General Periodic trends

The following are the trends to be observed:
✓ Melting point this is the temperature at which a solid melts to form a
liquid.

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✓ Boiling point this is the temperature at which a liquid boils to form a

vapour.
✓ Density this is the degree of compactness of a substance, which means it
is the mass per unit volume of a substance.
✓ Electronegativity this is the ability of an atom to attract an electron.
✓ Ionization energy this is the energy required to remove electrons from an
atom or ion.
✓ Atomic radius this is the distance between the nucleus of an atom and
the outermost shell.
✓ Reactivity it is how likely (or vigorously) an atom of a given element
reacts with other substances.

Trends across periods

o The atomic radii of elements in a period decrease from left to right.
o Elements to the left of the periodic table shows metallic properties.
o Electronegativity increase from left to right.
o The number of electrons and protons increases from left to right.
o The physical states of elements at room temperature move from solid to
gas.

General group trends

o Atomic radius increases down the group as successive shells are filled.
o Densities increase down the group.
o Melting point decreases down the group as the elements become less
metallic in nature.
o Electronegativity and ionization energy decrease down the group.

Group I Elements
Group I elements are called Alkali metals. This is because they dissolve in
water to form alkaline solution.
The group consists of five metals, namely Lithium, Sodium, Potassium,
Rubidium and Caecium. These elements have one electron in their outermost
shell.
Notes:
✓ Hydrogen has no specific group for it sometimes behaves like a group VII
element.
✓ Francium (Fr) is also an alkali metal but rarely included in the group.
This is because is among of the rarest naturally occurring elements.
✓ Lithium, Sodium and Potassium are reactive and are readily reacting
with water and air.
✓ Sodium is stored under kerosene because it is very reactive.

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The three metals (Lithium, Sodium and Potassium) have the following
properties:
Physical properties
▪ They are good conductors of heat and electricity.
▪ They are soft metals.
▪ They have low densities.
▪ They have shiny surfaces when freshly cut.

Chemical properties
▪ Group I elements burn in oxygen or air with a characteristic flame colour
to form white solid oxides.
Metal + oxygen → metal oxide

These metal oxides dissolve in water to form alkaline solutions of the

metal hydroxide.

Example:
Sodium + oxygen → sodium oxide

Na (s) + O2 (g) → Na2O (s)

Then
Sodium oxide + water → sodium hydroxide
Na2O (s) + H2O (l) → 2NaOH (aq)

▪ They react vigorous with water to give the alkaline solution and hydrogen
gas.
Metal + water → metal hydroxide + hydrogen gas

Example:
2K (s) + 2H2O (l) →2KOH (aq) + H2 (g)

Group II elements
Group II elements are called Alkali earth metals. The group consists of six
metals, namely Beryllium, Magnesium, Calcium, Strontium, Barium and
Radium.
The elements have two electrons in each of their outermost shell. Magnesium
and Calcium are usually available in school laboratories.

These metals have the following properties

Physical properties
▪ They are harder metals than those in Group I
▪ They are silvery grey in colour when pure and clean
▪ They are good conductors of heat and electricity

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Chemical properties
▪ They burn in oxygen or air with a characteristic flame colour to form a
solid white product.
Metal + oxygen → metal oxide

Example:
Calcium + oxygen → calcium oxide
2Ca (s) + O2 (g) → 2CaO (s)

▪ They react with water but much less vigorously than the elements in
group I to form metal hydroxide and hydrogen gas.
Metal + water → metal hydroxide + hydrogen gas

Example:
Magnesium + water → magnesium hydroxide + hydrogen gas
Mg (s) + 2H2O (l) →Mg(OH)2 (aq) + H2 (g)

▪ The metals become more reactive as we move down the group.

Note:
The silvery white calcium reacts vigorously when dropped in water to
produce a gas and a white product. The reaction of magnesium in water
is very slow, it is almost unnoticeable. This confirms that the reactivity of
group II metals with water increases down the group.

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07. Bonding, formula and nomenclature

Bonding
A bond is anything that holds two or more things or substances together.
A chemical bond is a force of attraction that holds atoms together to form a
molecule.
A molecule is the smallest particle of an element or compound which is made
up of two or more atoms covalently bonded together.

Chemical bonding
Chemical bonding involves forces of attraction between electrons in the
outermost shells of atoms. When the outermost shells are full filled, the atoms
are said to be stable otherwise they are unstable.
The stable atoms are generally unreactive and can exist freely as single atoms.
Unstable atoms cannot exist freely as single atoms. For unstable atoms to
become stable, they should acquire electronic arrangements similar to those of
noble gases. This means that they either lose, gain or share electrons.

When an atom loses an electron to acquire a stable electronic arrangement, the

lost electron is transferred to another atom which then becomes stable. Both
atoms become ions. The one that loses electron becomes a positively charged
ion, while the one that gain electrons becomes a negatively charged ion. A
positively charged ion is called a cation, and a negatively charged ion is called
an anion.

Electrovalent bonding
Electrovalent bonding is also called ionic bonding. It is the force of attraction
between ions with opposite charges. It always occurs between a metal and non-
metals by transfer of electrons.
Example:
The reaction of chlorine and sodium to form sodium chloride.

The molecules of electrovalent compounds are not discrete. This means that
the ions can move freely around each other especially when in molten or in
solution form.

Properties of electrovalent compounds

▪ Are generally soluble in water.
▪ They conduct electricity when in solution or molten form, but not when
in solid form.
▪ They are usually crystalline solids at room temperature.
▪ They have usually high melting and boiling points.
▪ They are generally insoluble in non-polar solvents.

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Covalent bonding
Covalent bonding involves the sharing of electrons between atoms. Atoms may
gain the noble gas electron structure without becoming ions but by sharing of
the outermost electrons.
A covalent bond is a chemical bond formed by the sharing of one or more
electrons between atoms. Covalent bonds are usually formed between non-
metals.
Molecules of covalent bonds are discrete or distinct. This means that the atoms
forming the molecules cannot exist freely in the compound. They remain bound
together in molecules and their electrons are not free to form bonds with other
atoms.

Properties of covalent compounds

▪ They have low melting and boiling points
▪ They are usually liquids or gases at room temperature
▪ They do not conduct electricity
▪ They are generally soluble in non-polar solvents
▪ They are generally insoluble in water

Differences between electrovalent and covalent bond

Electrovalent (ionic) bond Covalent bond

It is formed between metals and non- It is formed between non-metals by
metals by transfer of electron(s) sharing of electrons.
It is held by electrostatic force of It is held by the weak Van der Waal
attraction force
Ionic compounds are good conductor Covalent compounds are poor
of electricity conductor of electricity
They have high boiling and melting They have low melting and boiling
points points
Ionic compounds are soluble in water Covalent compounds are soluble in
polar solvents

Valence
Valence is a combining power of an element or a radical.
Or
Valence is the number of electrons an atom will donate, share or receive in
formation of a chemical bond.

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Oxidation state
Oxidation state is also known as oxidation number. It is the measure of the
electron control that an atom has in a compound compared to the atom in the
pure element.

Rules used to assign oxidation state to elements

✓ In free elements, each atom has an oxidation number of zero no matter
how complicated its molecule is.
✓ In simple ions that consist of only one atom, the oxidation number is
equal to the charge on the ion.
✓ Hydrogen has an oxidation state of +1 in most compounds. The exception
is in hydrides of active metals where the oxidation number is -1.
✓ Oxygen has an oxidation state of -2 when present in most compounds,
except:
o In peroxides e.g. H2O2, where the oxidation number is -1
o When bonded with fluorine to form F2O, the oxidation number is
+2 and that of fluorine is -1
✓ All oxidation numbers must be consistent with the conservation of
charge.
This means:
o For all neutral molecules, the oxidation number of all the atoms
must add up to zero.
o For complex ions, the oxidation numbers of all atoms must add up
to charge on the ion.

Calculations of oxidation state/number

Example
Calculate the oxidation state of the underlined elements in
the given compounds
i) Cr2O72-
ii) SO32-
iii) KClO3
iv) NO2-
v) NaCl

Solution:
i. Cr2O72-

2Cr + (-2 x 7) = -2
2Cr – 14 = -2
2Cr = -2 + 14
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2Cr = +12 (dividing by 2 both sides)

Cr = +6
The oxidation number of Cr is +6

ii. SO32-
S + (-2 x 3) = -2
S -6 = -2
S = -2 + 6
S = +4
The oxidation number of S is +4

iii. KClO3
+1 + Cl + (-2 x 3) = 0
Cl -5 = 0
Cl = +5
The oxidation number of Cl is +5

iv. NO2-
N + (-2 x 2) = -1
N – 4 = -1
N = -1 +4
N = +3
The oxidation number of N is +3

v. NaCl
+1 + Cl = 0
Cl = -1
The oxidation number of Cl is -1

Radical
A radical is a group of atoms with unpaired electrons.
OR
A radical is a group of atoms which acts as a single atom in bonding.

Some common radicals

Radical Stable ion form Valence

Nitrate NO3- 1
Nitrite NO2- 1
Sulphate SO42- 2
Hydrogen sulphate HSO4- 1
Sulphite SO32- 2
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Carbonate CO32- 2
Hydrogen carbonate HCO3- 1
Hydroxide OH- 1
Phosphate PO43- 3
Thiosulphate S2O32- 2
Cyanide CN- 1
Permanganate MnO4- 1
Dichromate Cr2O72- 2
Ammonium NH4+ 1

Chemical formulae
A chemical formula is a representation that uses symbols to show the
proportions of the elements present in a chemical compound.
The number of atoms or groups of atoms shown by number subscripts. For
example, the chemical formula for sodium sulphide is Na2S, which clearly
shows that two atoms of sodium combine with one atom of sulphur to form the
molecule.
For groups of atoms (radicals), a bracket is used to show they are being
considered as a unit under one valence. Example in Ca(NO3)2 , the radical NO3
is in brackets.

Points to remember when writing a chemical formula

✓ Positively charged ions (cations) are written before the negatively charged
ions (anions)
✓ A radical must be treated as a unit
✓ The name of the cation is the same as the neutral element from which it
is derived (i.e. Na for sodium)
✓ Single elements are not bracketed
✓ The valence 1 is simply assumed and not written in the formula
✓ For the ratios that can be simplified (e.g. 2 and 2 or 2 and 4) are
simplified to the lowest.

Steps that can be used to write a chemical formula

✓ Write the symbols of the elements and radicals
✓ Write down the ions used with their valences
✓ Interchange the valences of the elements as subscripts.

Example:
Give the formula of the following compounds
a) Calcium chloride
b) Aluminium sulphate

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Solution:
2+ –
a) Ca Cl

Ca2 Cl 1

The formula of calcium chloride is CaCl2

3+ 2-
b) Al SO4

Al3 SO4 2

The formula of Aluminium sulphate is Al2(SO4)3

Types of chemical formulae

Chemical formulae can be basically be divided into three type namely empirical
formula, molecular formula and structural formula.

Empirical formula
An empirical formula is the formula which represent the simplest ratio of the
atoms or ions in a compound.
The simplest formula is usually determined by considering experimental data.
That is why is called “empirical” which means “based on experimentation”.

A molecular formula
A molecular formula is the formula which shows the actual number of each
different atom in a molecule. It is a multiple of the empirical formula.
That is:
𝐀 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐚𝐫 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐦𝐮𝐥𝐚 = 𝐧 (𝐄𝐦𝐩𝐢𝐫𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐥 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐦𝐮𝐥𝐚)

Where: n is the whole number

A structural formula
A structural formula is a graphical representation are molecular structure
showing how atoms are arranged. The chemical bonding within the molecule is
also shown.

Formula calculations
Steps followed when calculating formula
✓ Write the symbols of the elements in the given compound.
✓ Write the mass or percentage composition of each element.
✓ Divide the mass or percentage composition of each element to its
respective Relative atomic mass (RAM)

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✓ Divide the value obtained in step 3 to the lowest value

✓ Convert the ratios to whole numbers, this is empirical formula
✓ To get the molecular formula, use the formula
𝐀 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐚𝐫 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐦𝐮𝐥𝐚 = 𝐧 (𝐄𝐦𝐩𝐢𝐫𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐥 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐦𝐮𝐥𝐚)

Examples:
01. What is the empirical formula for a compound of mass 8.1g, if it
consists of 4.9 g of magnesium and 3.2 g of oxygen?

Solution:
Element symbol Mg O
Mass composition 4.9 3.2
Mass composition 4.9/24 3.2/16
divided to RAM
Ratio obtained 0.204 0.2
Dividing the ratio 0.204/0.2 0.2/0.2
obtained to
smallest ratio
≈1 =1

The empirical formula is MgO

02. Given that a certain compound is 69.58% Ba, 6.090% C and

24.32% O, calculate the empirical formula of this compound.
Solution:
Element symbol B C O
Percentage 69.58 6.090 24.32
composition
Percentage 69.58/137.3 6.090/12 24.32/16
composition
divided to RAM
Ratio obtained 0.5068 0.5075 1.520
Dividing the ratio 0.5068/0.5068 0.5075/0.5068 1.520/0.5068
obtained to
smallest ratio
1 ≈1 ≈3

03. A compound contains 15.8% carbon and 84.2% sulphur. Calculate

its empirical formula. If its relative molecular mass is 76, what is its
molecular formula?

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Solution:
Element’s symbol C S
Percentage 15.8 84.2
composition
15.8/12 84.2/32
Percentage
composition divided to 1.32 2.63
relative atomic mass 1.32/1.32 2.63/1.32
Divide each value to
smallest ratio 1 1.992 ≈ 2

The empirical formula is CS2

From,
(Empirical formula)n = Molecular formula
(CS2)n = 152
[12 + (32x2)]𝑛 = 76
76 n = 76
n= 1

(CS2) x 1 ➔ CS2
The molecular formula is CS2

Questions:
01. A compound has 1.121 g of nitrogen, 0.161 g of hydrogen, 0.480 g
of carbon and 0.640 g of oxygen. What is its empirical formula?
02. A compound has an empirical formula CH. If its relative molecular
mass is 78.11, what is its molecular formula?
03. A compound is analyzed and found to contain 68.54% carbon,
8.63% hydrogen and 22.83% oxygen. Calculate:
a) Its empirical formula
b) Its molecular formula, if its relative molecular mass is 104.

Nomenclature of binary inorganic compounds

Nomenclature is a systematic way of assigning names to items or substances
that belong to a particular group or classification.
Binary refers to compounds that consists just to ions. The inorganic
compounds fall mainly into two main categories namely ionic and covalent.

Binary ionic compounds

Ionic compounds are formed when a metal combines with a non-metal.

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Steps followed when naming binary ionic compounds

✓ Name the metallic ion that appears first in the formula using the name of
the element itself
✓ The second part of the formula, which is usually an anion in the
compound, will end in “ide”
e.g. oxygen → oxide, hydrogen → hydride, chlorine → chloride
✓ For transitional elements that can use more than one valence when
combining, we show the valence of element used, using Roman number
in the formula.
✓ The names of radicals remain as they are.

Examples
NaCl – Sodium Chloride
MgO – Magnesium Oxide
Al2(SO4)3 – Aluminum Sulphate
FeCl2 – Iron II chloride
FeCl3- Iron III chloride
Cu2s – Copper I sulphide
Cuo – Copper II oxide
MnO2 - Manganese IV oxide
CaCO3 – Calcium Carbonate

Binary covalent compounds

Covalent compounds are formed between non-metal elements.

Steps followed when naming binary covalent compounds

✓ Give the name of the first element
✓ Give the name of the second element with the ending changed to –ide.
✓ If more than one compound is possible between the two elements, give
prefixes to indicate the number of atoms of each element.
The prefixes used with their corresponding numbers:
1 – mono-
2 – di-
3 – tri-
4 - tetra-
5 -penta-
6 –hexa-
7-hepta-
8-octa-
9-nona-
10-deca-

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Example of the covalent compounds

PCl3 – Phosphorus trichloride
PCl5 – Phosphorous pentachloride
CO2 – Carbon dioxide
SF6 – Sulphur hexafluoride
N2O5 – Dinitrogen pentaoxide
CO – Carbon monoxide

Common compounds
Common Name Chemical Name Chemical Formula
Water Water H2O
Common salt Sodium chloride NaCl
Sugar Sucrose C11H22O11
Soda Ash Sodium carbonate NaCO3
Aspirin Acetyl/salicyclic acid C9H8O4
Baking soda Sodium hydrogencarbonate NaHCO3
Vitamin C Ascorbic acid C6H8O6
Chalk Calcium carbonate CaCO3
Asbestos Magnesium silicate MgSiO3
Plaster of Paris Calcium sulphate CaSO4
Marble Calcium carbonate CaCO3
Fluorspar (Flourite) Calcium fluoride CaF2

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