GAS DETECTION AND MEASUREMENT -

TEST and CALIBRATION

TRAINING / REFERENCE DOCUMENT

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 GAS DETECTION AND MEASUREMENT

INTRODUCTION

The presence of harmful gases and vapours in the air we breathe can be a
hazard to human life. The exact nature of this hazard depends on the gases
present. Many substances are recognised by odour or taste; some may
cause dizziness, tears or other physical reactions. However, these reactions
should not be relied on to determine what is in the air. We must use sensitive
instruments specially designed for this purpose.

One of the most common hazards is lack of oxygen in the air we breathe. Too
much can increase the flammable risk, whereas too little can potentially
jeopardise human life. Some gases are flammable and can burn or explode
when mixed in the right proportions with air and a suitable ignition source is
present. This can result in extreme danger to personnel and/or equipment.

The concentration of toxic gases and the length of time of exposure to them
can adversely affect human life. Symptoms can range anywhere from mild
headache to death.

Sometimes we recognise the symptoms, sometimes we don’t.

The difference may be fatal.

SAFE

DIZZINESS

NAUSEA

LOSS OF
CONSCIOUSNESS

DEATH

Toxic or harmful gases and vapours can be generated during an operational

process or by nature. There is a requirement to monitor for gases anywhere
they may occur.
On a ship, this can be anywhere, but is more likely to occur in confined or
enclosed spaces, especially during bulk liquid cargo operations, or where
there is a requirement to carry out work or maintenance on equipment within
the cargo system. Always remember, the natural decomposition of material in
a confined or enclosed space, such as a water ballast tank or anchor chain
locker can create harmful gases and these pose just as much a threat to life.

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Company specific regulations dictate safe working practices where gas
hazards commonly occur and gas-monitoring equipment ensures compliance
with these regulations and SAFETY OF LIFE.

MONITOR THE AIR

YOU BREATHE

MAINTAIN SAFETY
OF LIFE

A basic requirement for safe operations on board all ships is that the working
atmosphere is breathable, non-flammable and non-toxic. Tankers, whether
oil, chemical or liquefied gas, are a special risk in this respect because of the
cargoes they carry.

Although personnel serving on tankers are often considered to be at

greater risk, the information in this module can be applied to all ships
whether they are carrying hazardous cargoes or not, and especially
where entry into confined or enclosed spaces is required.

This training module gives guidance on the instruments and their operation,
that are designed to detect and measure the atmosphere in and around a
ship, so that personnel can always work safely and without the risk of
exposure to flammable, toxic or suffocating atmospheres.

Note: for the purpose of this training module, any reference that is made
to tankers includes oil, chemical and liquefied gas carriers.

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 CONTENTS

PART I

1.0 HAZARDOUS ATMOSPHERES

1.1 Flammability
1.2 Toxicity
1.3 Anoxia

2.0 GAS DETECTION INSTRUMENTS

2.1 Flammable Gas Indicators

1 Catalytic Filament Combustible Gas detector
2 Non-Catalytic Filament Combustible Gas detector
3 Semiconductor

2.2 Toxic Gas detectors

1 Detector Tubes

2.3 Oxygen Analysers

1 Paramagnetic
2 Electrolytic
3 Chemical Absorption

2.4 MULTI GAS DETECTORS

2.5 Calibration and Checking

PART II

1.0 Instrument Maintenance, Calibration and Testing

1.1 Calibration

1.2 Function Testing

1.3 Methods of Calibration

1.4 Calibration Techniques

1.5 Practical advise for Calibration

1.6 Instrument Maintenance checks

1.7 Practical Training

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1.0 HAZARDOUS ATMOSPHERES

Personnel living and working on board any ship, irrespective of type, must
always be aware of their surrounding environment. It is a basic requirement
that the atmosphere is
non-flammable,
non-toxic and
has an oxygen content of 21% (20.9%).

THREE MAIN RISKS

FLAMMABILITY

TOXICITY

ANOXIA

All vessels are supplied with portable instruments to detect and accurately
measure different atmospheres, but in the case of tankers, the number and
type of portable instruments carried differs and many are also are fitted with
fixed gas detection systems. This ability to accurately measure various
atmospheres is vital to on board safety.

The proper operation of the correct type of instruments for specific purposes is
therefore critical, and the dangers in each case must be fully understood.

UNDERSTAND THE HAZARD

USE INSTRUMENTS CORRECTLY

MAKE SURE INSTRUMENTS ARE

CHECKED AND CALIBRATED

FOLLOW THE CORRECT PROCEDURES

IF YOU ARE UNSURE – ASK

IF YOU KNOW SOMETHING IS NOT

RIGHT - QUESTION

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The various hazards can be identified as follows.

1.1 Flammability - liability to catch fire

(Refer to pull out Figure 1)

Many of the cargoes carried in tankers give off flammable hydrocarbon gas at
ambient temperatures (ambient means the surrounding temperature at the
time). This gas can be ignited and will burn only when mixed with air in the
right proportions. If there is too little or too much gas the mixture will not burn.
Expressed as a percentage by volume of petroleum gas in air, these levels
are known as the lower and upper flammable limits, (LFL and UFL). Although
they vary for different petroleum gases, (see figure 1a) for normal tanker
practice they range from a minimum (LFL) of about 1% to a maximum (UFL)
of about 10% gas by volume in air.

LEL/LFL = Lower Explosive Limit/Lower Flammable Limit

UEL/EFL = Upper Explosive Limit/Upper Flammable Limit

LEL/LFL = 1%

UEL/UFL = 10%

During cargo discharge operations on oil tankers, sometimes on chemical

tankers and occasionally on LPG tankers, Inert gas (IG) is introduced into the
vapour space of cargo tanks so the atmosphere is controlled and maintained
below the lower flammable limit.
IG, (although not the most hazardous of gases), can be produced on board as
flue (funnel) gas or gas produced by a purpose built generator. Nitrogen also
produced through a generator; or carried in stored cylinders as pure Nitrogen
(N 2 ) may also be used. On occasion, some gas and chemical tanker
operations also require the inert gas to be supplied from the shore. When
cargo tanks are properly ‘inerted’, (sufficient oxygen is excluded) operations
may be safely carried with no risk of fire or explosion.

A mixture of hydrocarbon gas and air cannot be ignited and burn unless it lies
within a range of gas in air concentrations known as the flammable range.

In figure 1, the hydrocarbon gas concentration in air by volume (0-100%) is

shown in the left hand column. This column illustrates the mix of gas and air
(also showing the flammable range 1% to 10%) measured on a range of
instruments instruments reading 0-100% by volume hydrocarbon gas.

If we expand this Flammable range, as shown in the centre column, we can

see the limits of the range. This “Flammable range” is typically 1% to 10%.

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However specific gases may have different ranges (see Figure 2). These
levels are known as the Lower Explosive Limit (LEL – sometimes known as
the Lower Flammable Limit - LFL) and Upper Flammable Limit (UFL – or
Upper Explosive Limit).

Above the flammable range the mixture is known as “too rich”. The mixture
has insufficient air to burn.
Below the flammable range there is insufficient hydrocarbon gas for the
mixture to burn, this area is known as “too lean”.

The instrument used to measure this “too lean” area is called a Catalytic
Filament Combustible Gas Detector (CFCG) or is more commonly known as
an Explosimeter. This instrument measures 0-100 % LFL.

The right hand column shows this LEL or “too lean” area expanded to show
the Explosimeter (CFCG) reading 0% to 100% LFL. Some gases are toxic
within this range and although toxicity of a gas or vapour is normally
measured in parts per million (ppm) it can also be expressed as % LFL.
Safe working limits for toxicity are known as Threshold Limit Values (TLV’s).
There are currently about 600 substances for which the TLV’s are known (see
section 1.2 below). Always check the MSDS for the cargoes being carried
as these will tell you the TLV.

ALWAYS USE THE RIGHT INSTRUMENT

DO NOT confuse the two different instruments above, both of which

measure hydrocarbon gas concentrations.
Gascope measures gas as a % by volume
Explosimeter (or CFCG) measures gas as a % LFL.

-------------------------------------------------------

Flammable Limits – Propane, Butane, Heptane

Flammable Limits,
% volume, hydrocarbon in air
Gas/Vapour
UFL LFL
Propane 9.5% 2.2%
Butane 8.5% 1.9%
Pentane 7.8% 1.5%

FIG 1a

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 Fig 1

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Inert Atmospheres (See Figure 2 below)

The following is a general summary of the requirements for an inert gas

system – for detailed statutory requirements and guidelines the relevant
sections of SOLAS and ISGOTT must be consulted.

By replacing most of the air in a cargo tank with inert gas, bringing the oxygen
concentration down to an acceptable level, the atmosphere can then be safely
controlled. On some tankers, it is mandatory that an inert gas system is fitted
as defined by SOLAS. An Inert Gas system is considered to be a ‘Fire
Prevention system’ and must be fitted and operated as such?
However it should also be understood that although the Inert gas system is
fitted to prevent fire and thus protect the vessel and personnel, if incorrectly
used, it may in itself present a considerable risk to human life.

SOLAS requires that inert gas systems are capable of delivering inert gas with
an oxygen content not more than 5% by volume at any required rate of flow.
It must also maintain a positive pressure in the cargo tanks at all times with
an oxygen content of not more than 8% by volume except when, for
operational reasons the tank has to be gas free.

There are two main hazards associated with inert gas:

• incorrect gas freeing procedure and
• oxygen deficiency.
Gas freeing is a critical operation, which must be properly carried out.

The (typical) atmosphere in an empty cargo tank, which has previously carried
a flammable cargo is shown as point H in Fig. 2. In the diagram, the oxygen
level is about 5% and the hydrocarbon gas concentration is about 7.5% by
volume. If the tank is then gas freed from this point, at some stage the
atmosphere would have to pass through the flammable range (point F to
point A). This is an unacceptable practice.
PLEASE NOTE - it is not possible to measure the hydrocarbon gas
concentration in the above atmosphere with an Explosimeter or CFCG
(see section 2.0). To do this a Tankscope or similar instrument must be
used.

Before gas freeing with air, the tank atmosphere must first be purged of
hydrocarbon gas by the introduction of inert gas. This will bring the mixture in
Fig 2 below the “critical dilution line” (point F). % hydrocarbon gas
concentration will then be approximately 1% by volume. Fresh air can now
be safely introduced until the tank is free of all inert gas and hydrocarbon
gases (point A). During this final gas-freeing period, the oxygen level must be
constantly monitored until there is sufficient to allow the use of the CFCG
(about 16%).
A tank/compartment must never be entered unless the oxygen concentration
is 21% (20.9%) and a hydrocarbon gas content as low as practicable, but
never more than 1% LFL. It is also vital that during this period, the correct
instrument is used for measuring the atmosphere and the operator clearly
understands the difference between % volume and % LFL.

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FIG 2

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1.2 Toxicity

“All substances are poisons; there is none which is not a poison.

The right dose differentiates a poison and a remedy.” (Paracelsus 1493-1541)

This means that all substances in the wrong quantity taken over the right
period of time can be poisonous or harmful.

Harmful materials reach our bodies by one of four routes; Inhalation (we
breathe it in), Ingestion (we swallow it), Absorption (it enters after contact
with our skin or eyes); Injection (it is injected into our skin).

Inhalation is often the greatest hazard.

Toxicity can be defined as the “relative ability” of a substance to cause

adverse effects in living organisms. This “relative ability” is dependent on
several conditions. The quantity (the dose of the substance) determines
whether the effects are toxic, non-toxic or beneficial. In addition to the
quantity, other factors may also influence toxicity such as the route of entry,
duration and frequency of exposure.

Toxicity is dependant on:

• how the substance is absorbed,

used by the body and excreted

• how rapidly the substance acts

• warning properties of the

substance

Routes of Exposure (how the toxin gets into our body)

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As stated above, there are four routes by which a substance can enter the
body: Inhalation, ingestion, absorption (skin or eye), ingestion, and injection.

Inhalation: For most chemicals in the form of vapours, gases, mists, or

particulates, inhalation is the major route of entry.

Ingestion: Chemicals that inadvertently get into the mouth and are
swallowed do not generally harm the gastrointestinal tract itself unless they
are irritating or corrosive. Chemicals that are insoluble in the fluids of the
gastrointestinal tract (stomach, small and large intestines) are generally
excreted. Others that are soluble are absorbed through the lining of the
gastrointestinal tract. Then they’re transported by the blood to internal organs
where they can cause damage.

Absorption: through the skin or eye: Skin (dermal) contact can cause effects
that are relatively innocuous such as redness or mild dermatitis; more severe
effects include destruction of skin tissue or other debilitating conditions. Many
chemicals can also cross the skin barrier and be absorbed into the blood
system. Once absorbed, they may produce systemic damage to internal
organs. The eyes are particularly sensitive to chemicals.

Injection: Substances may enter the body if the skin is penetrated or

punctured by contaminated objects. Effects can then occur as the substance
is circulated in the blood and deposited in the target organs.

Once the substance is absorbed into the body, other processes are possible.

Health Effects

Human health effects caused by exposure to toxic substances fall into two
categories:
short term and long term.

Short term (or acute effects) have a relatively quick onset, usually minutes to
days after a brief exposure to relatively high concentrations of a material.

Long term (or chronic effects) may develop over a long period of time as the
result of a single dose or repeated exposure. To understand how toxic a
substance is, we must have a way of measuring the level at which it is
considered safe to work in an atmosphere that may contain that substance.

Toxicity (on board ships) is usually measured in parts per million (ppm).
Different substances have differing ppm’s. Their toxicities vary enormously
and the levels of a substance we can tolerate will depend on the length of time
we are exposed to them. Therefore these limits have been divided into three
categories varying in the amount of time and level of exposure.

They are known as the Threshold Limit Values or TLV’s.

THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUE (TLV)

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Various International organisations have prepared lists of the (TLV’s) for many
substances ( currently over 600).

There are three TLV categories.

1 Threshold Limit Value – Time Weighted Average (TLV –

TWA)

The time weighted average concentration for a normal 8 hour

workday or 40 hour work week to which nearly all workers may
be exposed, day after day without harm.

2 Threshold Limit Value – Short Term Exposure Limit (TLV –

STEL)

The maximum concentration to which workers can be exposed

for up to 15 continuous minutes without suffering ‘intolerable
irritation, chronic or irreversible tissue change, or narcosis of
sufficient degree to increase accident proneness, impair self
rescue or reduce work efficiency’. This is provided that no more
than four exposures are permitted within this limit with at least
50 minutes between exposure and provided that the daily TLV-
TWA also is not exceeded.

3 Threshold Limit Value – Ceiling (TLV – C)

The instantaneous concentration that should not be exceeded.

TLV’s are guidelines and are not intended as absolute

boundaries between safe and dangerous concentrations.

1.3 Anoxia (lack of oxygen reaching the body’s tissues)

To stay alive, the body needs oxygen.

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If the oxygen concentration decreases in the atmosphere we breathe, the
body reacts in various ways. Death occurs rapidly when the concentration
reduces to 6%. (Remember the Inert Gas Oxygen levels!!)

The normal atmosphere consists of 78% nitrogen, 21% (20.9%) oxygen, and
about 1% other gases including a small amount of carbon dioxide. An
atmosphere containing toxic contaminants, even at very low levels, can be a
hazard to the lungs and body. A concentration large enough to decrease the
percentage of oxygen in the air can lead to asphyxiation.

Effects on the body are not apparent until the oxygen level drops to about
16%, however it must be fully understood that personnel are at risk unless a
level of 20.9% can be guaranteed AND MAINTAINED.

A lack of oxygen should always be suspected in all enclosed spaces,

particularly if they have contained water, have been subjected to damp or
humid conditions, have contained inert gas or are adjacent to, or connected
with tanks that contain an inert atmosphere.

The oxygen content of the atmosphere in enclosed spaces may be low for
several reasons. The most obvious one is that the oxygen has been
displaced by another gas. On tankers, most commonly this is because the
compartment contains inert gas. Oxygen can also be removed by chemical
reactions such as rusting or curing of paint or coatings.

As the amount of available oxygen decreases below the normal 21% by

volume, so breathing tends to become faster and deeper. Symptoms
indicating that an atmosphere is deficient in oxygen may not give adequate
notice of danger. Most persons would fail to recognise the danger until they
were too weak to be able to escape without help. This is especially so when
escape involves the exertion of climbing.

Unless in an absolute emergency, entry into oxygen deficient spaces

must never be permitted. Breathing apparatus must be worn, though it is
preferable for the space(s) to have been thoroughly ventilated and test
readings indicate an oxygen level of 21% by volume throughout the space
BEFORE ENTRY.

2.0 GAS DETECTION INSTRUMENTS

In the marine industry, there are many and varied names used to describe the
same instrument. Where possible, the principles, use and limitations are as

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described in ISGOTT, however where it is felt necessary, other information
has sometimes been used.

In any event, before use, make sure the operating manual has been read and
the instrument is being used strictly in accordance with the manufacturers
instructions and guidelines.

2.1 Flammable Gas Indicators

Measurement of hydrocarbons can be made in two different atmospheres; a

mixture of hydrocarbons in air and hydrocarbons in inert gas. A different type
of instrument is required in each case.

1 Catalytic Filament Combustible Gas Detector (CFCG) – also

known as an Explosimeter or Combustible Gas Indicator

CFCG’s are used to measure hydrocarbon gas concentrations in air. As the

name implies, they utilise two heated catalytic filament wires (pellistors)
connected to a Wheatstone bridge circuit in which one is exposed to the
sample atmosphere and the other (compensating filament) is protected.
Flammable gases ‘burn’ on the heated filament, whereas no combustion takes
place on the compensating filament. The increase in temperature of the
exposed filament relative to the compensating filament causes a
corresponding increase in resistance. This produces a deflection on the
instrument’s meter. This ‘imbalance’ in the Wheatstone bridge of the
instrument is proportional to the gas concentration and shows the actual
percentage of the LFL. The meter ‘deflection’ is shown on a scale calibrated
to read 0% to 100% of the LFL. Some instruments may have a second
expanded range of 0% to 10% LFL.

It should be noted that the instruments meter is not designed to

measure beyond 100% LFL. In atmospheres approximately above 3
times the LFL, the instrument needle may rapidly deflect to 100% and
then just as quickly fall back to a reading near to zero. This is because
at that level of hydrocarbons there is insufficient air to properly oxidise
the gas in the mixture. When checking the readings, watch carefully for
this. A zero reading in this case will not mean no gas. Care should also
be taken as prolonged use in this type of mixture can cause the sensor
filament to be coated with carbonaceous matter giving incorrect
readings.

Also, non-hydrocarbon gases in high enough concentrations (H 2 S, CO

or gases from lead compounds) can affect the meter response.

To be considered safe for entry, for whatever purpose, a reading of not

more than 1% LEL must be obtained on a suitable Combustible Gas
Indicator (CGI).

2 Non-Catalytic Heated Filament Gas Indicator - also known as

Tankscopes or Gascopes

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These instruments are used to measure hydrocarbon concentrations in
excess of the LFL in air or in oxygen deficient (inerted) atmospheres.

Two types of instrument are available.

A - The Non Catalytic Heated Filament Gas Indicator and

B - Refractive Index meter.

A – The sensing element of this instrument is a non-catalytic hot filament. As

with the CFCG, the sensor forms one arm of a Wheaststone Bridge. The rate
of heat loss from the filament is a non-linear function of hydrocarbon gas
concentration and the meter scale reflects this non-linearity. The meter gives
a direct reading of % volume hydrocarbons.
The filament is not affected by gas concentrations in excess of its working
scale.
These instruments are known as Tankscopes or Gascopes. Depending on the
age and design of the instrument, measurement is taken by either an electric
pump or by a hand aspirated bulb.
The Tankscope measures the LFL in an inert atmosphere as a % volume but
only to 10%.
The Gascope measures the % volume of hydrocarbon gas in an inert
atmosphere for the full range up to 100%.

B –This is an optical device and depends on the difference between the

refractive indices of the gas sample in air. A beam of light is divided in two
and recombined at the eyepiece as a number of dark lines. One beam of light
passes through chambers filled with air and the other through chambers filled
with the sample gas. The dark lines are displaced across a scale by the
amount proportional to the change of refractive index. The scale may be
calibrated in concentration units or it may be an arbitrary scale whose
readings are converted by a table or graph to read % volume hydrocarbon
gas.

Measurements of hydrocarbons in an inert gas atmosphere are affected by

the CO 2 (Carbon Dioxide) in flue gas. In this case an absorbent can be used
providing the reading is corrected appropriately.

3 Semiconductor

The semiconductor type indicator utilises a heated silicon chip which, when
exposed to a combustible atmosphere causes a reduction in the resistance
and produces a voltage output which can be shown on a meter. The
semiconductor instrument is generally less specific to combustible gases than
the ‘hot wire’ instrument. Consequently it is often used only as a ‘safe’ or ‘not
safe’ instrument (GO - NO GO)

2.2 Toxic Gas Detectors

There are a number of types of instrument, which may be used to detect toxic
gases. The most common are those using Colorimetric Detector Tubes and

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Photo-ionization Detectors, although the cost of the latter may prohibit its use
on board ships.

1 Colorimetric Detector tubes are sealed glass tubes containing

mixtures of chemicals that change colour when they come into contact with
specific (known) contaminants. Different devices such as piston and bellows
pumps are used to draw samples through the tube.

It is very important to read, understand and follow the instructions regarding

the number of pump strokes to be taken in order to accurately determine the
concentration present. These instructions also contain warnings with regard to
specific factors that can affect tube response.
Like all chemical reactions, the reaction that occurs inside a detector tube may
be affected by extremes of temperature, excessively high humidity,
atmospheric pressure, sunlight or the presence of other interfering gases or
vapours. The manufacturers instructions should always indicate temperature
and humidity limitations and list some common interfering gases and vapours.

Colorimetric Detector tubes should always be stored in a refrigerator in order

to maintain their shelf life. It is also very important to note the expiration date
on the box of the tube you use.

Expired tubes should not be used because their results may not be
accurate.

2.3 Oxygen Analysers

Portable oxygen analysers are used to measure the oxygen concentration in a

tank or compartment, in order that safe access may be made. Similarly, they
are used to check the oxygen concentrations in a compartment or tank that is
inerted.
Oxygen analysers may come in different shapes and sizes. They may be the
clip-on type that is worn by all personnel entering tanks or spaces and which
give audible and visual alarms for high (23%) and low (19%) concentrations of
oxygen.
These may also be of the disposable type that is thrown away after expiry of
their useful life. Always check the date that the analyser was first used
(normally one year for the battery life – if approaching the end of a year it will
normally indicate so on the meter readout). If you are in any doubt, DO NOT
use this instrument as you will place yourself and others in danger.

They can be larger and portable for checking the oxygen content during the
time the tanks or spaces are being inerted or gas freed. These do not
normally have alarms for high and low oxygen concentrations.

Fixed oxygen analysers (not dealt with in this module) are used for monitoring
the oxygen content of the inert gas as produced from the onboard generators
and are a part of the inert gas system.

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Some instruments are fitted with a “fail safe”. This means that a sensor failure
will show a low reading indicating it is not safe to enter.

There are three main types of sensor in use;

• Paramagnetic sensors

• Electrolytic sensors

• Selective Chemical Absorption Liquids

All sensors, regardless of type should only be used strictly in

accordance with the manufacturers instructions.

1 Paramagnetic Sensors

Oxygen is strongly paramagnetic (becomes magnetised) whereas most

other common gases are not. This property therefore enables oxygen to
be measured mixed in a wide variety of other gases.

Paramagnetic instruments measure the deflection of a magnet pivoted in a

symmetrical non-uniform magnetic field; the magnet is in a sealed
chamber into which the gas sample is introduced.

The deflection is directly proportional to oxygen concentration. Some other

gases, notably oxides of nitrogen, have comparable paramagnetic
properties; therefore this technique cannot be used if such gases may be
present in anything other than trace amounts. Excepting this, these
instruments can be used for detecting oxygen in mixtures of other vapours.

2 Electrolytic Sensors

This type of analyser gives the oxygen content of a gas mixture by

measuring the output of an electrolytic cell. Oxygen is diffused through a
membrane into a cell causing current to flow between two special
electrodes separated by a liquid or gel electrolyte. The flow is related to
the oxygen concentration in the sample and the scale is arranged to give a
direct indication of oxygen content. The cell may be housed in a separate
sensor head connected to the read out unit.

Gases other than oxygen may affect the sensor and give false readings.
Sulphur dioxide which is present in Inert Gas and oxides of nitrogen
interfere with the readings, if they are present in concentrations more than
0.25% by volume. Mercaptans (Stenching Agents) and hydrogen sulphide
can poison the sensor if their levels are greater than 1% by volume. This
poisoning does not occur immediately but over a period of time. A
‘poisoned’ sensor drifts and cannot be calibrated in air. In such cases
reference should always be made to the manufacturer’s instructions.

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3 Selective Chemical Absorption Liquid

In this type of analyser, a known volume of sample gas is brought into

contact with a liquid that absorbs oxygen, causing a volume change in the
liquid. The relationship of this volume change to the original volume is a
measure of the oxygen content in the sample.

As high concentrations of hydrocarbon gas can affect the reagents used, it

is not recommended for measuring oxygen content in the ullage space of a
loaded tank.

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2.4 MULTI GAS DETECTORS

Modern instruments vary enormously in the range of gases they are able to
detect, their size and their operating methods. Mostly automatic, many come
with interchangeable sensors enabling one instrument to be used to detect a
variety of different gases at the same time.

STATUS AT A GLANCE

• Four gases displayed

simultaneously

• Clear Icons detailing operation

• Clear display with wide viewing

angle

• Confidence flash to confirm proper

instrument operation

A typical instrument will have sensors housed in one of two types of plug-in
cartridge. A pre-calibrated disposable cartridge typically will be used for
oxygen, flammable, carbon monoxide and hydrogen sulphide sensors. The
disposable cartridge can be easily replaced and then re-calibrated on board,
some instruments using a special tool for simple calibration. Other
serviceable cartridges can be used for detecting more exotic gases; the
instrument itself automatically recognising when a cartridge has been
replaced.

MAINTENANCE MADE EASY

• All serviceable parts plug-in

• Easy Cartridge replacement

• Re-calibration in less than two

minutes

• Automatic replacement Cartridge

recognition

• When ‘calibration is due’ and ‘end

of life’ warning

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The instruments themselves are designed for use in hostile environments and
are generally small, lightweight and unobtrusive. Some are pocket sized for
individual use.

OPTIONAL PUMP MODULE

• Plug-in operation with built in

filter assembly

• Automatically starts/stops when

pump adaptor fitted for remote
sampling

• Diffusion of pump mode

automatically selected

• Pump operation and pump

failure indication included

Perhaps the biggest advantage of modern instruments is their ability to

carry out “self checks” prior to operation. These checks are carried out
during a so-called warm up period. Typically an alarm may be triggered
under the following conditions:

• when the relevant gas level exceeds (or falls below for O 2 ) the
concentration alarm setting

• when the relevant value exceeds the set alarm thresholds for the
exposure alarm

• when the battery is no longer sufficiently charged

• when there is insufficient flow during pump operation

• in the event of instrument and sensor faults.

This element of self diagnosis makes the modern multi gas detector more
robust and reliable, however simply because the instrument gives a
reading to two decimal places and has many different lights and alarms
does not mean that the information is necessarily any more accurate than
many older instruments.
It is the ability of the operator to fully understand, correctly interpret
the results and operate the instrument to the manufacturers
instructions, which are most important.
Personnel using these types of equipment are reminded that vetting
inspectors do NOT accept ‘self-checks’ and require personnel to be
able to demonstrate the procedure for calibrating and checking the
specific instrument.

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2.5 CALIBRATION AND CHECKING OF INSTRUMENTS

Because of the diversity of instruments carried on board, different types of

vessels, and the enormous variety of cargoes carried today it is not
possible to make a generic instruction applicable to every type of
instrument and cargo. Part II of this module therefore gives general
guidance only on the checking of instrumentation. Manufacturers
instructions and the Company’s procedures must always be strictly
followed.

Should there be a conflict between any of these guidelines or instructions,

the Company must always be alerted giving full details. But always
remember the following:-

• Identify what an instrument is and what it calibrates i.e. oxygen

meter, Tankscope, Gascope, Explosimeter etc so that anyone will
know which instrument serves what purpose.

• Always read the instruction manual carefully before use and note
the relevant points with regard to operation and calibration.

• Check that you have the correct canisters of span-gas always

available on board for the instrument in question. Note – different
makes of similar instruments require different span-gases for
calibration purposes.

• Check the battery levels where applicable – replace if low or

suspect.

• Write out in a simple procedure how the calibration is to be

conducted.

• Follow the written procedure.

• Record the calibration check details on the appropriate company

form.

By following these simple instructions, it is possible for all officers to be

able to correctly calibrate and use any instrument.

It should also be used as an on-board training tool recording the training

on the appropriate company form.

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 PART II

1.0 CALIBRATION AND FUNCTION TESTING

1.1 CALIBRATION

All gas analysers and sensors are comparative devices and are susceptible to
‘drift’. This may result in an over or under estimation of the true gas
concentration as indicated on the instrument.

These effects can be minimised, but not completely eliminated by the

application of a documented calibration and maintenance procedure in line
with the manufacturers instructions and recommendations.

Calibration determines the relationship between an instrument’s reading and

the actual concentration of the sampled gas. Calibration falls into two
categories generally known as full and routine.

Full Calibration – is normally carried out on analytical, test or process control

equipment (ashore) where a greater degree of accuracy is required. It is
normally carried out once or twice a year at major service intervals.
Equipment is returned to the manufacturer or test house for full calibration and
the instrument returned with a new calibration certificate.

Routine Calibration – is made on a regular basis. Normally the zero point

and a single ‘up-scale’ value are checked generally 50% to 80% of the
measurement range. Frequency of routine calibrations is determined by the
manufacturers recommendation or in house quality procedures in accordance
with company policy. Variations in the values obtained during routine
calibration indicate a possible instrument problem and should be monitored
and corrective action taken if required.

1.2 FUNCTION TESTING (sometimes referred to as “bump” testing)

In addition to calibration there is a requirement in many instruments for a more

frequent functional testing. These are simple tests that are not intended to
imply the accuracy of the instrument and are generally carried out by the
operator rather than a trained technician. They are intended to check the
basic function of the equipment and its ability to detect the gas within wide
limits.

This function or “bump” test gives the user confidence that the equipment is
functioning, not how well it is functioning. It may be performed daily or before
use particularly where the sensor function may be impaired by external
influences such as poisoning. Test gases are introduced into the instrument in
a similar manner as during calibration.

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Unskilled operators should be able to carry out the test and the results should
be easy to record, interpret and compare so that there are no ambiguities in
interpretation.

HOWEVER, this type of functional testing does not establish how accurately
the analyser is performing.

1.3 METHODS OF CALIBRATION

The instrument should be in good working order and functional before

calibration is carried out.

Calibration should normally be performed using the gas to be measured in a

similar background gas. For example, if methane is to be measured in a
normal atmosphere then natural gas or methane in air mixtures should be
used to calibrate the instrument rather than methane in nitrogen. Always
follow the manufacturers instructions when ordering calibration gas.

Flammable gas detectors are normally calibrated with a gas in air mixture on
the LEL or flammable scale. Where % volume measurements are made then
either 100% concentrations are used or high gas concentrations of gas in inert
mixtures; for example 8% butane in nitrogen is commonly used to calibrate %
volume instruments used for sampling inerted tanks.

Gas cylinders

The most common method of calibration of gas analysers and sensors is

through the use of pressurised cylinders of calibration gas from specialist
suppliers. A known concentration of the (instrument) gas in an inert balance
gas is specified normally 50 to 80% of the measurement range.

In the case of multi gas detectors it is possible to use a single cylinder, multi
component gas mixture containing many different gases. Again it should be
stressed here that care should be taken to accurately follow the
manufacturers instructions when ordering these multi gas mixtures as cross-
sensitivity to the wrong components could seriously affect the accuracy and
validity of calibration.

Care should always be taken to closely follow the manufacturers instructions

to avoid over pressurising the instrument. The first stage of any calibration
procedure is to ensure that:-

Calibration gas is applied at the right pressure

Input lines to the instrument are ‘leak tight’.

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1.4 CALIBRATION TECHNIQUES

It is impossible to cover every detailed procedure for calibration of a particular

instrument, but some general guidelines can be given. The particular
instructions for a specific product should always be used in conjunction with
appropriate on board training. Together this will produce repeatable results
that give confidence and safety to users.

An instrument user has to take decisions based on instrument readings. If the

readings are wrong, the decisions could also be wrong putting life and
property in danger.

Anyone who maintains or calibrates safety critical equipment should be

properly trained and competent in its use. The Company’s SMS provides
guidance in the frequency of this calibration and users should always refer to
both this and the manufacturers instructions.

Modern gas detection instruments are becoming more sophisticated and can
detect the presence of many hundreds of substances with different degrees of
resolution and sensitivity.

Anyone who is going to use gas detection instruments must therefore be able
to:

 Select the most appropriate method for determining the

anticipated hazard to the correct level of accuracy or precision

 Check the instrument to verify that it is functioning and reading

correctly

 Use the instrument properly such that the atmosphere being

monitored is evaluated correctly

 Correctly interpret the results

Calibration Set Point

It is important to calibrate the instrument at the correct calibration point (using

the correct scale). This will always be in accordance with the manufacturers
instructions. This will generally be at a point, which is a significant percentage
of the full scale and within the accuracy of the instrument. There would be little
point in calibrating an instrument at 5% of scale if the critical measurement is
at 50%.

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Zero

A typical requirement is to ‘zero’ the instrument in clean air. There are

mixtures available which provide this but it is most commonly carried out in
normal ambient conditions. Again, manufacturers instructions must be
followed but room air can be uncontrolled and can have an influence on the
calibration results.

Procedures

Always follow the manufacturers instructions and Company procedures.

Frequency of calibration

There are many different views on how often an instrument should be

calibrated or tested. There is no complete answer to this, the solution is a
combination of information from the manufacturer, the Company and the user
himself.

The manufacturer recommends a calibration period for returning the

instrument ashore for calibration based on its likely operation and his own
experience. This should always be followed (unless the Company gives
written instructions otherwise).

Normally the operator should check the instrument functionality (bump test)
before each use to ensure the basic operation is correct. This can include gas
testing if required.

Routine calibration should be carried out in compliance with the guidelines

given in the Company’s procedures.

1.5 PRACTICAL ADVICE FOR CALIBRATION

It is essential to maintain gas mixture quality and accuracy from the cylinder to
the connection point at the instrument. The following is some practical advice
in order to achieve optimum results.

The major problem areas are:-

Leakage out
Air/moisture in
Internal corrosion
Reaction
Absorption/adsorption (1)
Low cylinder pressure

(1) Absorption occurs when molecules of a substance are taken into the body
of another material. Adsorption is when molecules of a substance adhere to
the surface of another material, without being incorporated into it.

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Leakage – always ensure that tubes are appropriate to the gas type and
usage. Never use non-standard tubing. Make sure connections are properly
fitted, surfaces are clean, dry and free from cracks. Do not over tighten
connections and never use lubricants or sealing compounds that may interfere
with the gas.

Air/Moisture in – Wherever there is a possibility of leakage out, there is also a

possibility of air and moisture getting in. Moisture may interfere with effective
instrument operation. See ‘leakage in’ above.

Internal corrosion – may occur due to condensation, absorption, extreme

environmental conditions.

Reaction – use of incompatible materials. Always use only the equipment

provided.

Low Cylinder Pressure – gases produced at high pressure (from a cylinder)

lose their consistency when the cylinder is almost empty. Always carry spare
cylinders and have a way of measuring the contents.

Gas Control

Flow control valves should always be used where the flow of a gas stream
needs to be reduced to suit a particular application. They do not reduce
pressure and should be used in conjunction with a pressure regulator where
this is required (high pressure cylinders).

For low pressure cylinders, simple flow control valves are available which
simply control gas flow to the sensor.

1.6 INSTRUMENT MAINTENANCE CHECKS – (includes any routine

cleaning or changing of parts by the user or approved service agent).

Many modern instruments are now able to carry out most if not all of these
checks when the instrument is first switched on (the so called warm up
period). Although modern instruments are able to tell a user that they need
calibration, this can only be done using a proper known gas mix to check the
entire range or span of the instrument as explained above. In some cases,
after a certain period of time, it will be necessary to return the instrument to
the manufacturer or an approved service agent to have the sensors re-
calibrated under factory conditions.

Always follow the manufacturers appropriate instructions when carrying out

any check or maintenance operation.

Always confirm that the concentration of the span gas (as printed on the
cylinder) is the same as that recommended in the instrument’s operations
manual. Using the wrong concentration may cause an instrument to give
inaccurate readings during normal operation.

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Some stored gas (notably H 2 S) has a shelf life beyond which it is
unacceptable to use it for calibration. All stored gas cylinders should
therefore be carefully checked before use.

1.7 PRACTICAL TRAINING

Practical training should be attempted only when a working instrument(s)

and suitable calibration gas are available. As a minimum it should be used to
show the following:-

1. Detection and Measurement of appropriate flammable gases

2. Detection and Measurement of Oxygen levels

3. Detection and Measurement of Toxic vapours

NB – a multi gas detector may be used to demonstrate 1,2,and 3 combined in

a single instrument.

Training will consist of three parts in each case.

• Operational Use

• Routine Calibration

• Routine Maintenance

Evaluation

Afterwards, the trainee should be asked to demonstrate the following:-

1. The use of each of the instrument(s) used

2. Proper routine calibration of each instrument

3. Routine maintenance of each instrument

The trainee will also be tested on the theory of operation and gas mixtures
(flammability, toxicity and anoxia).

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