Module 3 - Personality

MODULE 3
PERSONALITY
Contents
Personality ......................................................................................................................................................... 2
Contributing Factors of Personality ................................................................................................................... 3
Heredity ......................................................................................................................................................... 3
Environment .................................................................................................................................................. 3
Theories of Personality ...................................................................................................................................... 5
I. Psychoanalytical theory is also called the dynamic theory, Freudian theory) ...................................... 5
II. Type Theories of personality: .............................................................................................................. 10
III. Trait theory of personality: .............................................................................................................. 13
IV. Social Learning Theory ..................................................................................................................... 17
Personality assessment ................................................................................................................................... 18
Assessment methods................................................................................................................................... 18
Work related aspects of personality. .............................................................................................................. 21
Locus of control ........................................................................................................................................... 22
Macheviallianism ......................................................................................................................................... 22
Narcissism .................................................................................................................................................... 23
Self Monitor ................................................................................................................................................. 23
Self Esteem .................................................................................................................................................. 23
Risk taking .................................................................................................................................................... 24
Authoritarianism.......................................................................................................................................... 24
Self-efficacy ................................................................................................................................................. 24
Achievement orientation............................................................................................................................. 24

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Personality

Personality is derived from Latin word "Persona" which means "Mask: to speak through", implying the
characteristic pattern and behavior style revealed by people from their external appearance. But
personality in organizational psychology goes beyond external appearance to include the specific
qualities, attributes, traits, factors and mannerisms that distinguish one individual from another. While
the external attributes are directly observed by everyone, internal attributes are inferred using some cues.
Definition-I: "Personality is the dynamic organization within the individual of those psychological systems
that determines his unique adjustment to his environment" [Gordon Allport)

Definition-2: "Personality includes external appearance and behaviour, inner awareness of self as a
permanent organizing force & the pattern of inner & outer measurable traits. [Floyd. L. Ruch]"

Personality = Individual's reaction to other people + environmental adjustments/interactions

Nature of Personality:
➢ Personality is the characteristic set of traits & behaviors of an individual, which is relatively stable and
which can predict an individual's behavioral tendencies.
➢ Personality has both internal (thoughts, values and genetic characteristics that are inferred from
observable behaviors) and external (observable behaviors) elements.
➢ Personality may originate from genes as well as shaped by the environment.
➢ Individuals vary in their personality. No two individuals will have same personality. Not even twins.

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Contributing Factors of Personality

Personality of an individual is molded by varied factors. Some of these factors can be controlled and
manipulated while others are relatively constant. Basic classification of factors affecting personality is
Heredity and Environment. The following are the major factors that affect personality formation of an
Individual.
Heredity

One major factor which influences personality is heredity. These are the factors that are
determined at conception and are transferred through chromosomes. Many psychological and
physiological factors like facial attractiveness, skin color, temperament, energy levels, intelligence, eye &
hair color, height etc. are generally transferred by genes. Researches prove that >50% of personality
differences are contributed by heredity. These are more or less permanent traits of personality which
are difficult to change. The role of heredity in personality development an unsettled area of
understanding. Some of the researches do not converge to accept heredity as a major contributor of
personality

Additional Reading Material

Steven Pinker: Human nature and the blank slate
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CuQHSKLXu2c

Environment

Environment plays a major role in personality formation. There are various environmental actors
which affect personality. They are:

a) Culture: The broad spectrum of culture includes factors such as societal culture which influences
norms, attitudes and values that create consistencies over time. Even though culture has significant
impact on personality, it is not possible to associate a linear relationship between personality and
culture. Impacts of culture on all individuals are not uniform because the value systems transferred to
individuals are by different people like parents, neighbors, relative peers etc. Moreover, an individual's
response to a particular social condition will be different which will also affect the formation of
personality.
E.g. Indian culture teaches you to be industrious, frugal, logical, with strong family value
Western culture lays emphasis on being Independent, Competitive, Ambitious and Aggressive

b) Family: Influence of family in molding personality of an individual is high during early stages. The
family factors are important in determining personality of an individual. Three major factors: viz., the
socialization process, identification process and birth order influence the personality of an individual.

i) Socialization Process: It is the process of acquiring a wide range of behavior infant from the wide
range of behavioral patterns that are available to him at birth These are the behavioral patterns
that are customary and acceptable according to the standards of his family and social groups.
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Family members ensure that the infant conforms to certain behavior acceptable to the family.
E.g. In North Indian families, it is customary to touch the feet of elders when you visit them.
Family members insist on this pattern among all members of the family.

ii) Identification Process: Personality is shaped with more vigor from the time identification process
commences. Identification Process occurs when a person tries identify himself with some person
who is his idol in the family. E.g. A child tries to emulate his father or mother based on whom he
considers his idol.
iii) Birth Order: Birth order is found to have some influence in the personality of an individual. It is
widely accepted that first born children are likely to be more independent, rational,
understanding, ambitious, hardworking cooperative, and more prone to anxiety and are less
aggressive in comparison to the younger siblings of the family. Younger ones are more street
smart and playful in general. This could be due to the different kinds of exposure the children
get when they are born at different time in the life cycle of parents.

Additional Reading Material

Does birth order matter? | Finn McCarthy | TEDxYouth@MBJH

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iNwQbhMqmJ4

Why your birth order is a blessing and a curse | Pavel Mischenko | TEDxBocaRaton
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bQy2tISWQQ0

Social Factors: These are distinctly different factors from the previous two factors because the social
group at this stage in personality development includes a wider range of coverage like family,
schoolmates, friends or colleagues at workplace, group to which belongs etc. Behavior pattern will be
customary and acceptable according to standards of his family and social groups. The organization and
work groups have a major impact on personality. E.g. An individual interned under a disciplined manager
in the workplace imbibe that quality into his personality.

Situational Factors: There is increased importance given off late, to the influence of situational factors on
personality. Though an individual's personality is stable and consistent, it changes with different
situations. A study conducted by Milgram suggested that actions of an Individual are determined by the
situation. According to him, situation exerts an important influence on the individual. It exercises
constraints and may force individual to behave in a particular way.

Example: Situations like a temple, classroom, working place, employment interview etc regulate the
behavior of the individual to a greater extent, based on the situational requirement. Behaviour exhibited
by an individual will not be the same when he is in the playground with his friends.

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Theories of Personality
There are many theories of personality.

Psycho analytical
theory
• Sigmund Freud

Type Theories
Social Learning Theory
• Hippocrates 4 humors
• Albert Bandura
• Sheldon’s Somato type
• Friedman’s Type A and Type B
• Carl Jung’s Extrovert and Introvert

Trait Theory
• Gordon Allport’s Idiographic approach
• Raymond Cattell’s Nomothetic approach
• OCEAN five factor

I. Psychoanalytical theory is also called the dynamic theory, Freudian theory)

Sigmund Freud developed this theory. According to him, the human mind consists of
elements that are responsible for shaping the personality. They are Id, Ego and Super-ego. Freud
identified 3 levels of consciousness: Preconscious (Memories that can be recalled), Conscious (What
we're aware of) and Unconscious levels (Wishes, feelings, impulses that we are not aware of)
Unconscious mental activity determines behavior. Conscious element is guided by reasoned reality
principle.
a) Id - unconscious - pleasure principle

It is the storehouse of instincts and primitive needs of an individual (Animalistic). Id is the totality of
instincts oriented towards increasing pleasure, avoiding pains and striving for immediate satisfaction of
desires.

The personality characteristics of an individual are built on the foundation of the Id. The Id is present at
birth and represents our instinctual drives such as hunger, sex and aggression, which motivate most of
our behavior.
The Id is completely unconscious and operates on the "pleasure principle". These "unconscious drives"
operate without conscious awareness. This is because our unconscious desires are too difficult or too
painful to face directly
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b) Ego = conscious = reality principle

The ego begins to develop during the first year of life and balances the Id's urges with reality. Hence, the
ego is guided by the "Reality Principle". It balances the demands of Id and Super-ego. These are the
everyday actions of individuals - what you do is determined by the part of your mind that holds your
current awareness. This is the most apparent layer, and while only a small part of overall awareness, this
where the individual's focus generally lies.
10% of one's personality is Ego. It is the conscious mediator between realities of the world and the id's
demands. Ego keeps the Id in check so that the pleasures unconsciously demanded by Id are granted at
an appropriate time and place. While doing most of its work in the conscious, a portion is working beneath
the surface. This means to say that ego primarily works at conscious level and sometimes at unconscious
level.

c) Superego = preconscious & conscious level = morality principle

The superego is the embodiment of societal rules, ethics and morals. It is the ethical and moral arm of
personality. It is the individual's internal expression of society's moral and ethical code of conduct. Super
ego is a moralistic segment of human personality consisting of noblest thoughts, ideals, feelings developed
through absorption of cultural values and attitudes.

The super-ego strives to act in a socially appropriate manner, whereas the Id just wants instant self-
gratification. Super-ego acts like a "brake" which prevents the impulsive responses stemming from Id. The
super-ego controls our sense of right and wrong and guilt. It helps us fit into society by getting us to act
in socially acceptable ways. The superego sets high standards for behavior and monitors the decisions of
the ego. Perfection, rather than pleasure is its goal. The superego causes feelings of guilt and shame when
its standards aren't met. The super-ego works in contradiction to the Id. All humans have Id, Ego and the
Superego, but in varying amounts.

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Defense Mechanisms

Defense mechanisms are ways by which individuals deal with stressors or anxieties in life. It is healthy
when defense mechanisms used sparingly. It is good to use defense mechanisms to change one's behavior
to become more productive, able to change external environment positively and modify his unreasonable
needs. But defense mechanisms are often negative and not a very effective outlet for stress release.
Rationalization, Substitution, Altruism, Anticipation and Sublimation are positive defense mechanisms
whereas Regression, Repression, Denial and Projection are undesirable mechanism. Though most of the
defense mechanisms are unconscious, some of them work from conscious level too. Continuous use of
negative defense mechanism can cause serious psychological illness.
The following are some of the most common defense mechanisms.

1. Denial: It is one of the simplest and most primitive defense mechanism. A person refuse to admit
that something is unpleasant. If a situation is too much to handle, the individual refuses to experience it.
Some people often turn away from a topic of discussion which is highly stressful to that person. It is the
failure to accept real situation. Statements like "It can't happen to me" fall into this category.
Example: The failure to recognize the death of a loved one

2. Repression: It is the blocking of unpleasant memories from conscious awareness. Not being able to
recall a threatening situation, person, or event which it amounts to selectively remembering instances. It
occurs without the conscious awareness or intention of a person

Example: A person almost drowns as a child, but can't remember the event even people try to remind
him, but he does have a fear of open water!
3. Displacement: It is a complex defense mechanism. In this defense individual shifts his feeling of
hostility from the person who is the stressor to soar other target. It is the redirection of an impulse onto
a safer substitute target. It involves directing emotions and behavior towards objects or people that aren't
the real cause of worry to feel safe.
Example: An individual who was severely reprimanded by her boss and ridiculed in front of her colleague
may not be able to show her anger to the boss, but may come back home and show her frustration on
her spouse.
4. Projection: This is the most often observed defense mechanism used for ego protection. It is the
tendency to see your own unacceptable desires in other people. Unacceptable feelings are attributed to
someone else. Blaming others for your failure. Making others scapegoats, blaming the teacher's poor
teaching for student's failure, fate and bad luck are all projected defense mechanisms.

Example: A faithful husband finds himself attracted to the lady next door. Rather than acknowledge his
own feelings, he becomes increasingly jealous of his wife, constantly worried about her faithfulness.

5. Reaction formation: In this defense mechanism, the individual protects himself from developing a
dangerous behavioral pattern by exhibiting the opposite behavior. This is what Anna Freud called
"believing the opposite". Changing an unacceptable impulse into its opposite. A feeling that produces
anxiety is transformed into its opposite; Reaction formation helps an individual to demonstrate socially
acceptable behavior. Concealing your anger with kindness, Pinching and pulling the cheeks of someone

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you like are all falling in this category. This defense mechanism mainly works at the unconscious level and
the individual does not have much control over it.
Example: "l hate Mom" becomes 'l really love Mom a lot’! The individual will often go above and beyond
in their expression of love in order to alleviate feelings of guilt and anxiety.

6. Regression: A very significant defense mechanism considered in psychology for protecting the ego
of the individual, always happening at unconscious level. A person reverts to a previous phase of
psychological development when encountered with stress. E.g. using child-like behavior when we are
stressed by something. When we are troubled or frightened, our behaviors often become more childish
or primitive.

Example: A child may begin to suck their thumb again or wet the bed when encountered with a stressor.
Someone may start howling, swearing and throwing things when agitated, which are not the regular
behavior of the individual. We often observe in movies when people encounter severe physical violence,
they curl up in the fetal form.

7. Rationalization: Here the person justifies his maladaptive behavior by giving logical explanation to
it. It is the cognitive distortion of "the facts" to make an impulse more acceptable, i.e., justifying your
irrational behavior. This happens very much at the conscious level. We do it often enough on a fairly
conscious level when we provide ourselves with excuses. Many of us are quite prepared to believe our
lies, much like the story of the 'Fox and the sour grapes'.
Examples: A student who is not able to compete for academic ranking in a class of very bright students
rationalizes by saying 'anyway I am not in this rat race'. Another example could be 'I entered the one way
from the wrong side only because my regular road was crowded and I had an interview to attend in time.

8. Sublimation: It is the provision of socially acceptable ventilation to an undesirable feeling. It is the

transforming of an unacceptable impulse, whether it is sex, anger, or fear, into a socially acceptable and
productive form. So, someone with a great deal of hostility may become a hunter, a butcher or a football
player. It is positive defense mechanism, where an individual will channelize his anger or any other
negative feelings into something productive like a piece of art, poem, book etc.
Example: When an individual is very angry, he goes to gym and practices kickboxing. According to Freud,
all positive creative activities were sublimations mostly of the sex drive.

9. Substitution: In this case, an individual replaces an unattainable goal with an attainable goal to
pacify himself and relieve disappointment.

Example: A person who can't sing well becomes a Tabla expert because he is connected to music and he
excels in a musical instrument.

10. Altruism: Way of dealing with stressors by going out of the way and dedicating oneself for the
betterment of others. By practicing altruism, the person derives a vicarious pleasure of seeing others
happy
Example, A widow or spinster taking up NGO work and helps the poor and with the problem of loneliness.

11. Anticipation: This is a defense mechanism where the stressors are dealt by anticipating the
consequences and feelings associated with probable future events and planning rear solutions for them.

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Example: Planning for retirement and booking an old age home facility in insensitive future behaviour
from their children.

12. Compensation: When an Individual encounters a real or imagined personal short coming, the individual
reacts in defense through this defense mechanism. Individual tries to draw attention away from the defect
by striving hard to get a notice and praiseworthy attribute. This defense mechanism has negative as well
as positive consequences. Over compensation will lead to an individual trying to hide his inferiority feeling
by devaluating anyone who comes in front of him.
Example: An employee who does not have required skill set for his job my compensate by being very nice
and pleasant to all in the office to camouflage his weakness

Limitations of Freud’s theory

The theory is untestable, as there are no means of measuring the unconscious objectively. The
study sample of Freud was mainly upper-class Austrian women, which is biased and the results may not
be applicable globally. His theory viewed women as inferior beings, which again is not acceptable. The
strongest argument against this theory is that it did not give room for prediction of future behaviors.
Besides, there was too much emphasis on early childhood experiences in personality

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II. Type Theories of personality:

Personality type refers to the psychological classification of different types of people. The different
types as propounded by the type theorists are based on temperament, which is the emotional aspect of
personality, and physique. These theories classify people into distinct categories, which are mutually
exclusive.

a) Hippocrates 4 humors: ( Hippocrates, Friedman, Sheldon)

The Greek physician, Hippocrates (400 BC) and Galen (140 AD) were among the first to classify the
personality types oi people, called by them as 'humors'. They identified 4 types of 'humors' in people.
Each type was believed to be due to an excess of one of four bodily fluids, corresponding to their
character. (Humors are bodily liquids, like the vitreous humor in the eye.

SANGUINE: BLOOD IS THE PREDOMINANT

HUMOR IN THESE PEOPLE.
THEY’RE CONFIDENT, JOYFUL,
OPTIMISTIC, EXPRESSIVE, AND SOCIABLE.

CHOLERIC: PEOPLE IN THIS CATEGORY

HAVE A HIGHER AMOUNT OF YELLOW
BILE, WHICH IS THE SOURCE OF THEIR
PASSIONATE TEMPERAMENT. THEY GET
ANGRY QUICKLY.

MELANCHOLIC: IN THESE PEOPLE, BLACK

BILE PREDOMINATES. THEY HAVE A
MELANCHOLIC TEMPERAMENT, ARE VERY
SENSITIVE, AND ENJOY ARTISTIC
PURSUITS.

PHLEGMATIC: THE PHLEGMATIC HAVE A

HIGH AMOUNT OF PHLEGM IN THEIR
SYSTEMS.
THEY’RE DEEP THINKERS, FAIR, CALM,
WILLING TO COMPROMISE, AND HARD
WORKERS.

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b) Sheldon's Somato type: Physiognomy Personality Types:

William Sheldon has propounded three types of personality based on the human anatomical or physical
structure of persons and psychological characteristics. According to this theory, the physical size of the
body influences the human behaviour and temperaments. The personality types are.

ECTOMORPH MESOMORPH ENDOMORPH

i Ectomorph: Ectomorph body type is characterized by a thin and flat chest. The person is intelligent,
feels shy and avoids social contacts. However, he is typically anxious, ambitious, and dedicated to his work.
He is quick to react and hypersensitive to pain and pleasure. (Quick, fragile, assertive, rigorous, combative)
People retain their personality of this type even after they change body type for whatever form.

ii Mesomorph: Persons having moderate physical characteristics are known as Mesomorphic. The
body is strong and tough. Some of the personality characteristics of this are: seeks physical adventure,
enjoys body building, feels restless, shows high aggression and self-assertiveness, likes to take risk and
develops competitive spirit. The person is liked by virtue of his physique (lean, muscular). They are active,
assertive, rigorous, and argumentative and competition oriented.

iii Endomorph: Certain characteristics of personality and behavior associated with this type are
friendly, concern for people, helping others in times of trouble, very slow reaction to stimuli. They seek
comfort; have strong inclination to delicious food, etc. The person who possess these personality
characteristics are liked by all. (Endomorphs are plump and developed). They are relaxed, tolerant,
peaceful, comfort living and sociable.

Additional Reading Material

Sheldon somato type theory has been debunked

https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2018/11/body-stereotypes-personality-debunked-
eugenics/575041/

c) Friedman’s Type A and Type B

This type of personality concerns how people respond to stress.

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Type A and Type B personality describes two contrasting personality types. In this hypothesis,
personalities that are more competitive, highly organized, ambitious, impatient, highly aware of
time management and/or aggressive are labeled Type A, while more relaxed, less 'neurotic', less
'frantic' personalities are labeled Type B.

FRIEDMAN’S TYPE A AND TYPE B

TYPE A PERSONALITIES TYPE B PERSONALITIES
(Monica Geller from F.R.I.E.N.D.S and Amy Santiago Joey Tribbiani from F.R.I.E.N.D.S and Jake
from Brooklyn 99) Peralta from Brooklyn 99)
COMPETITIVE RELAXED
IMPATIENT EASY GOING
HIGHLY MOTIVATED PATIENT
TIME CONSCIOUS NOT HIGHLY COMPETITIVE
DRIVEN BY THE NEED TO SUCCEED
NEEDS TO BE IN CONTROL

d) Carl Jung’s Extrovert & Introvert personality types:

Jung noted that none of us are completely extroverted or introverted

The introvert is more comfortable with the inner world of thoughts and feelings, so they will see
the world in terms of how it affects them.

The extrovert feels more at home with the world of objects and other people, and is more
concerned with their impact upon the world.

Introverts are more comfortable living alone and being by themselves. They depend on their “me
time” to recharge; they become immersed in their inner world and run the risk of losing touch
with their surroundings or their outer world. They also tend to be introspective and keep their
social circle limited.

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III. Trait theory of personality:

This is one of the most significant theoretical areas in the study of personality. It refers to psychological
classification of different levels or degrees of traits.

a) Gordon Allport’s Idiographic approach:

Gordon Allport defines traits by studying individuals in depth and focuses on the distinctive qualities of
their personalities. He identified around 4000 odd words used in the English dictionary which describe
different personality types. These traits are categorized into 3 types.
i. Cardinal traits: These are the traits which dominate an individual's entire lifespan. Traits that are
so much a part of an individual, that you can define the person by the trait. This character directs
an individual most of the activities. Allport believed that cardinal traits are rare and it tends to
develop much later in life. Hunger for power, being altruistic are such cardinal traits.
Example: Honest Abraham Lincoln.

ii. Central traits: They are the general characteristics that form the basic foundation of a person's
personality. Major characteristics of our personality which can exist in 5 to 10 numbers in any one
person (such as: sensitivity and generosity, honesty, sociability).
These traits are quite generalized and enduring, and these are the traits that form the building
blocks of our personality. Allport found that most people could be characterized by a fairly small
number of central traits.

iii. Secondary space traits: These traits are not always exhibited by individuals. They are less
generalized and far less enduring traits that affect our behaviors in specific circumstances.
Examples could be getting restless while waiting in a queue.

Cardinal traits are most pervasive; secondary traits least pervasive.

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a) Raymond Cattell's 16PF (Nomothetic approach)

Nomothetic approach: studies groups of people in the attempt to identify personality traits that tend to
appear in clusters. This approach uses the statistical technique called factor analysis (Raymond Cattell
Cattell reduced the list of 4000 traits as identified by Allport to 16 key personality traits. He began his work
by identifying certain obvious personality traits, such as integrity, friendliness and tidiness (1950, 1965,
1973, and 1982). He called these dimensions of personality as surface traits. Cattell then obtained
extensive data about surface traits from a large number of people (Nomothetic approach).
Statistical analysis of these data revealed that certain surface traits seemed to occur in cluster or groups.
Cattell theorized that these clusters indicated a single underlying trait.

Cattell derived a list of 16 primary or source traits that he considered being at the core of personality. He
listed each of these traits as a pair of polar opposites which he called 16PF. This personality assessment
test is often used in employee testing and selection. It is also used in career counseling.

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b) The five-factor theory (OCEAN)

In psychological trait theory, the Big Five personality traits, also known as the five-factor
model (FFM) and the OCEAN model, is a suggested grouping, for personality traits, developed
from the 1980s onwards.

The theory identifies five factors:

i. Openness to experience (inventive/curious vs. Consistent/cautious)

Openness to experience is a general appreciation for art, emotion, adventure, unusual ideas,
imagination, curiosity, and variety of experience. People who are open to experience are
intellectually curious, open to emotion, sensitive to beauty and willing to try new things.
They tend to be, when compared to closed people, more creative and more aware of their feelings.
They are also more likely to hold unconventional beliefs. High openness can be perceived as
unpredictability or lack of focus, and more likely to engage in risky behavior or drug-taking.
ii. Conscientiousness (efficient/organized vs. Extravagant/careless)

Conscientiousness is a tendency to display self-discipline, act dutifully, and strive for achievement
against measures or outside expectations. It is related to the way in which people control, regulate,
and direct their impulses. High conscientiousness is often perceived as being stubborn and
focused. Low conscientiousness is associated with flexibility and spontaneity, but can also appear
as sloppiness and lack of reliability. High scores on conscientiousness indicate a preference for
planned rather than spontaneous behavior. The average level of conscientiousness rises among
young adults and then declines among older adults.
iii. Extraversion (outgoing/energetic vs. Solitary/reserved)

Extraversion is a trait that is marked by pronounced engagement with the external world.
Extraverts enjoy interacting with people, and are often perceived as full of energy. They tend to
be enthusiastic, action-oriented individuals. They possess high group visibility, like to talk, and
assert themselves. Extraverted people may appear more dominant in social settings, as opposed
to introverted people in this setting

Introverts have lower social engagement and energy levels than extraverts. They tend to seem
quiet, low-key, deliberate, and less involved in the social world. Their lack of social involvement
should not be interpreted as shyness or depression; instead they are more independent of their
social world than extraverts. Introverts need less stimulation, and more time alone than extraverts.
This does not mean that they are unfriendly or antisocial; rather, they are reserved in social
situations
Generally, people are a combination of extraversion and introversion

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iv. Agreeableness (friendly/compassionate vs. Challenging/callous)

The agreeableness trait reflects individual differences in general concern for social harmony.
Agreeable individuals value getting along with others. They are generally considerate, kind,
generous, trusting and trustworthy, helpful, and willing to compromise their interests with
others. Agreeable people also have an optimistic view of human nature.

Disagreeable individuals place self-interest above getting along with others. They are generally
unconcerned with others' well-being, and are less likely to extend themselves for other people.
Sometimes their skepticism about others' motives causes them to be suspicious, unfriendly, and
uncooperative. Low agreeableness personalities are often competitive or challenging people,
which can be seen as argumentative or untrustworthy.
v. Neuroticism (sensitive/nervous vs. Resilient/confident)

Neuroticism is sometimes called emotional instability, or is reversed and referred to as emotional

stability. Neuroticism is interlinked with low tolerance for stress or aversive stimuli.
They are more likely to interpret ordinary situations as threatening. They can perceive minor
frustrations as hopelessly difficult. They also tend to be flippant in the way they express emotions.
Their negative emotional reactions tend to persist for unusually long periods of time, which means
they are often in a bad mood.

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IV. Social Learning Theory

Social learning theory is a theory of learning process and social behavior which proposes that new
behaviors can be acquired by observing and imitating others. It states that learning is a cognitive
process that takes place in a social context and can occur purely through observation or direct
instruction, even in the absence of motor reproduction or direct reinforcement. In addition to the
observation of behavior, learning also occurs through the observation of rewards and punishments, a
process known as vicarious reinforcement. When a particular behavior is rewarded regularly, it will
most likely persist; conversely, if a particular behavior is constantly punished, it will most likely desist.

Bandura began to conduct studies regarding how we acquire new behaviors through social
observation, the most famous of which were the Bobo doll experiments.

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Personality assessment

Assessrnent is a process of making judgments that are to be used for improving the product the process
and even the goals themselves. It is a wider term than measurement. MeasurenÄ denotes quantity but
assessment denotes quality too.

Personality assessment is a process ofmaking judgment on the various personality traits Ofan individual
that are to be used for improving the personality of the individual being assessed Personality assessnrnt
measures those relatively enduring aspects ofan individual which distinguish them from other people,
making them unique.

Need for assessment

➢ To understand the personality of individual
➢ To modify personality if necessary
➢ Career Planning
➢ Team Building and Management Development Activities
➢ Help managers forecast who the best bet for a job is to effectively manage the people
➢ Helpful in hiring decisions
Assessment methods
i. Subjective method:
➢ Autobiography
➢ Case history
➢ Questionnaire
➢ Interview

ii. Projective tests

A person responds to ambiguous stimuli to reveal hidden emotions and internal stimuli. Projective tests
reveal the central aspects of personality that is hidden in the unconscious mind of an individual. The
unstructured nature of projective tests elicits the hidden desires, inner fears and complexes. It can give
endless list of possible responses.

Psychologists present ambiguous visual stimuli to individuals and they are asked to explain what they see
in the stimuli. Unconscious concerns, thoughts, opinions and fears are projected by the individual and
those will then be interpreted and understood by the psychologist

Projective tests help an individual to showcase his personality attributes, which otherwise would not have
been noticed during interview. Test takers are not aware of the psychological interpretation of the
responses, and hence chances of faking a response are minimal. Moreover, this kind of tests will reveal
latent aspects of personality, which was never observed by the individual himself.

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Some of the famous projective tests are as follows:

• Rorschach Ink Blot Test

Developed in 1921 by Swiss psychiatrist Herman Rorschach, this test consists of 10 inkblots. These are
used to measure intellectual and nonintellectual personality traits. During the test, individuals are asked
to state what the inkblots look like to them. Responses are scored by psychologists using pre-determined
categories. These tests are used for diagnosing mental illness, for personality description and behavioral
prediction.

Additional Reading Material

Schizophrenia and Rorschach test

➢ https://www.dovepress.com/distinctive-rorschach-profiles-of-young-adults-with-
schizophrenia-and--peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-NDT
➢ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8810861/

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• Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) was developed by Henry Murray. This consists of 20 black and white
pictures which are deliberately drawn in an ambiguous way. After seeing the picture, a story is to be told
by the individual, based on what he understood from the picture. The story is then interpreted by the
psychologist, who will look for revealing statements and projections of the individuals' subconscious mind.

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iii. Personality Inventories

A personality inventory is a self-assessment tool that career counselors and other career development
professionals use to help people learn about their personality types. It reveals information about
individuals' social traits, motivations, strengths and weaknesses, and attitudes. Most personality
assessment instruments are in fact introspective self-report questionnaire measures or reports from life
records such as rating scales. MBTI (Myers Briggs Type Indicator is an example of Personality Inventory
Assessment method.)

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator® (MBTI®)

Favorite world: Do you prefer to focus on the outer world or on your own inner world? This is
called Extraversion (E) or Introversion (I).

Information: Do you prefer to focus on the basic information you take in or do you prefer to interpret and
add meaning? This is called Sensing (S) or Intuition (N).

Decisions: When making decisions, do you prefer to first look at logic and consistency or first look at the
people and special circumstances? This is called Thinking (T) or Feeling (F).

Structure: In dealing with the outside world, do you prefer to get things decided or do you prefer to stay
open to new information and options? This is called Judging (J) or Perceiving (P).

Your Personality Type: When you decide on your preference in each category, you have your own
personality type, which can be expressed as a code with four letters.

Work related aspects of personality.

The following are some of the major Personality Attributes influencing 0rganisational Behaviour
➢ Locus of control
➢ Machiavellianism
➢ Narcissism
➢ Self-esteem
➢ Self-monitoring
➢ Risk taking
➢ Type A personality
➢ Authoritarianism
➢ Self-efficacy
➢ Need for achievement/ Achievement orientation.

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Locus of control: The degree to which people perceive control over a situation being internal or external
is called locus of control these behaviors are significant to managers.

They are individuals who believe that they control what happens to them. People believe nal factors (their
skills and abilities) are the determinants of their destiny. Own actions are major and decisive determinants
of job outcomes.

They are individuals who believe that what happens to them is controlled by outside situation such as
luck, chance, other people or organizational factors. They believe that outside forces are responsible for
what happens to them and around them and they do not think their own action much of a difference.
Absenteeism: Internal LOC people tend to take less leave because they believe that health is under their
control, and even when they are not well they can manage to some amount of work

Employee turnover: There is higher tendency among the internal LOC to quit the job because they tend
to take action based on their beliefs.

Job satisfaction: Internal LOC is more successful and satisfied in jobs.

Decision-making style: External LOC tends to use intuitions for decision making whereas internal LOC tend
to use more facts and information before making a much-deliberated decision, as they want to have
control over their decisions.

Social interaction: Internal LOC is more sociable and tends to use social relationships for their improved
esteem.

Macheviallianism

Niccolo Machiavelli advocated a psychologically detached and unemotional behavioral approach by

individuals to organizational participation in meeting their personal objectives. The term Machiavellianism
refers to the degree to which an individual puts effort to gain control over organizational tasks.

It is the degree to which an individual is pragmatic, maintains emotional distance and believes that ends
can justify means. The primary focus is on obtaining and using power as a means to further one's own
ends, regardless of its impact on others. Machiavellians would be prone to participate in organizational
politics. They are also adept at interpersonal game-playing, power tactics, and identifying influence
systems in organizations.

Macheavillian: An emotionally distant and pragmatic power-player, who believes that ends justify the
means.
High macheavillians are manipulative, win more often, and persuade more than they are persuaded. They
use others to get ahead in life. They are not swayed by friendship, emotions and don't hesitate to lie.
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High macheavillians will flourish when they have one to one interaction with others. They work best when
there are minimal rules and regulations. They also thrive well when emotions distract low macheavillian
people, they capitalize on that.

Narcissism
A high Narcissist has a high sense of self-importance. They expect to be considered superior without
commensurate achievements. They often need excessive admiration and praise. They are Preoccupied
with fantasies of very high level of power and success. They are generally very arrogant and show high
self-importance. They tend to talk down to people who do not praise them and they treat them as inferior
people. They tend to be less effective in their jobs. Narcissist leaders are driven and they go to any extent
of personal sacrifices to achieve the goals. Since they are not very sensitive to others, they are able to
take tough decisions without any remorse as during the time of retrenching employees

Self Monitor

A personality trait that measures the ability of individuals to adjust their behavior in with external and
situational factors. Individuals can be high or low in self-monitoring based their ability to adjust to
situational demands. High self-monitors observe others around them their behavior to adjust their own
behavior to suit the situation. They show high level of behavioral inconsistency. They will have specific
purpose friends who will help them perform well in a specific activity. They avoid situations which put
them in bad mood. They have a striking balance between public, personal and selves.

Low self-monitors tend to act from internal states rather than from situational cues. They show
consistency in their behavior and are less likely to respond to work group norms or supervisory feedback.
Their friends are not chosen for meeting any specific purpose. They take time to fit into a situation. Low
self-monitors are not as vigilant to situational cues and act from internal rather than paying attention to
the situation.

A correct understanding of the type of self-monitoring of subordinates will help the managers to
communicate, motivate and elicit the required work out of them. It was found that though self-monitors
are good performers and often they become leaders, they have less commitment to the organisation

Self Esteem

The degree of like or dislike themselves is known as self-esteem. It is connected to an individual's desire
to succeed. An individual with a high desire for success is a person with high self- esteem. Positive self-
evaluation leads to higher job performance. They believe that their strengths are more important than
their weaknesses. They tend to choose risky and challenging jobs. They prefer their pride over monetary
gain. They don't have a tendency to do things for pleasing. They are free thinking, independent and are
satisfied with higher order of needs in need hierarch}
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High self-esteem people are high performers and are more satisfied with their jobs. People low self-
esteem will also have low job satisfaction, low desire for success, and fear of challenging jobs. They do
not give up an opportunity to please others. They are critical of others, repressed and blame others for
their failure.

Risk taking

People differ in their ability to take chances. This is closely connected to the time taken decision making.
High risk-taking managers make quicker decisions with minimum information. They operate well in
smaller and more entrepreneurial organizations. Low risk-taking are slow in decision making and need a
large amount of information to help in decision. They perform well in larger organizations with stable
environments

Authoritarianism

Authoritarian personality is a generic term used to describe an individual who has belief in the legitimacy
of established mechanisms of formal authority and views obedience to authority as necessary. This
concept refers to a belief that there should be status and power differences among people in organization.
They have certain negative beliefs about the work and workers. They compel obedience to authority. They
adhere to conventional values and do not give room to new ideas. They prefer stable and structured work
environments which are governed by clear rules and procedures. They are conservative.
Authoritarian leadership style is not a preferred leadership style and once the leader is understood to
have an authoritarian leadership style, introspection and solicited feedback to improve the leadership
style will do a lot more good to the motivation level of subordinates and hence the organizational
performance.

Self-efficacy

Has strong belief in one's own ability to deal with events and challenges. High self-efficacy results in better
performance of the employee. Self-Efficacy is the belief and the expectations of one's ability to accomplish
a specific task effectively. Self-efficacy may stem from prior experiences, behavior models (observing
success in others), persuasion and assessment of current physical & emotional capabilities.

Achievement orientation

It is the desire to accomplish something difficult, to overcome obstacles and to attain high standards.
Employees with high motivation would want to overcome obstacles quickly. They believe that success or
failure is because of their actions. They prefer jobs with moderate difficulty. They work hard on projects
which hold personal advantage and not otherwise. Prefer jobs with rapid performance feedback, have
direct relation between effort and reward. They are more suitable for supervisory or managerial jobs.
Among entrepreneurs, it is found that a significant proportion of them are high achievers.

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