Geographic Information Systems A

INTRODUCTION
Lecture 1
M. Gwena
2023
 Objectives

• Introduction to GIS
• Definitions of a GIS
• Appreciate the History of GIS
• Understand the various terminologies related to GIS
• Explain the basic Concepts of GIS
• Differentiate between the various types of Information Systems
• Explain why GIS is a hot topic (Why GIS ?)
• Explain the Benefits of GIS
• Outline Shortcomings of a GIS
What is GIS ?
GIS is both a Science and a System

Geographic Information Science

Geographic Information System

 What is a GIS ?
Lateral definitions:
• Geographic:
• Implies that location of the data items are known or can be calculated in terms of
coordinates (Latitude , Longitude)
• Information:
• Implies that information in a GIS are organized to yield useful knowledge, often as
coloured maps and images, but also as statistical graphics, tables, and various on-
screen responses to interactive queries
• System:
• is a group of interacting, interrelated, or interdependent elements with different
functions forming a complex whole.
• Science:
• is the observation, identification, description, experimental investigation, and
theoretical explanation of phenomena.
What does GIS stand for?
• Geographic Information Science
• is the science concerned with the systematic and automatic processing
of spatial data and information with the help of computers
• is the theory behind how to solve spatial problems with computers
• presents a framework for using information theory, spatial analysis and
statistics, cognitive understanding, and cartography
(Longley et al., 2005).

• Geographic Information System

• is a system designed for storing, analyzing, and displaying spatial data
• is the use of hardware, software, people, procedures, and data
• focuses on the processes and methods that are used to sample,
represent, manipulate and present information about the world
(Goodchild, 1992) .
 GIScience Vs GIS……
• GIScience Builds Better Geographic Information Systems

• While GIS answers the “what” and “where”, GIScience is concerned with
the “how”.

• Geographic Information Systems relies on the developments in GIScience

for future developments.

• In other words, GIScience is the building block and is the foundation for all
uses of a Geographic Information System.

• GIScience conceptualizes how to store spatial information, collect data

and analyze it.
• It encompasses all aspects of GIS such as remote sensing, surveying,
mathematics, programming and geography.
Geographic Information System – Other definitions
• A set of Tools for:
• Collecting
• Storing
• Manipulating
• Retrieving
• Transforming and
• Display of Spatial data from the real world

• A technology
• Hardware and Software tools

• An Information handling strategy

• The objective: To improve overall decision making
 GIS - definitions
Functional Definition
• A system of inputting, storing, manipulating, analyzing, and
reporting data

Components Definition
• An organized collection of compute hardware, software, geographic
data, procedures, and personnel designed to handle all phases of
geographic data capture, storage, analysis, display, and output.

(Y. Murayama & R. C. Estoque , University of Tsukuba 2010)

 What is G I S?
• GIS = Geographic Information System
• Links database and maps
• Manage information about places
• Helps answer questions such as:
• Where is “X”?
• What else is nearby ?
• Where is the highest concentration of “X” ?
• Where can I find things with characteristics of “Y” ?
• Where is the closest “Z” to my location?
GIS Concept: Brief History of GIS

• The term geographical

information systems can be
traced back to 1854
• John Snow in 1854 was the
fast to use GIS to trace the
origin of Cholera outbreak in
London, UK.
• He spatially correlated the
contaminated water sources
with the number of those
affected and deaths
Fathers of GIS…(1)
Concept of GIS

• In 1854, Dr. John Snow

created a map to show the
locations of death by
cholera in Central London.
• This technique was used to
track the source to a
contaminated well.
Brief History of GIS : Fathers of GIS…(2)
• In 1964, Roger Tomlinson
helped to design and
develop the Canadian GIS
(CGIS) – the first national GIS
System.
• The CGIS was used to
manage and analyze Canada
Land Inventory Data Monitor
and the environment
• In 1966, it was used to name
the Land Inventory System of
the Canadian Forestry
Department (Tomlinson)
 Brief History of GIS……….
• In the late 60’s The US Bureau of the Census recognized the need for
creating digital records of all US streets to support automatic referencing
and aggregation of census records.

• 1960’s SYMAP the first mapping package developed by Howard Fisher

• Landuse and Natural Resource Inventory System (LUNR), New York 1967

• The UK Experimental Cartography Unit (ECU) pioneered high quality

computer mapping in 1968 and published the world’s first computer map
made in a regular series in 1973 with the British Geological Survey.
 Brief History of GIS……….
• Minnesota Land Management System (MLMIS), Minnesota 1969
• Arc Info was Introduced in 1981 – The first major Commercial GIS
venture
• In separate developments, cartographers and other agencies were
debating on the use of computers to reduce the costs and shorten the
time taken to create a map
• National mapping agencies such as Britain’s Ordinance Survey, France’s
Institut Geographique National and the US Geological Survey and the
Defense Mapping Agency, (now the National Geographical Intelligence
Agency) began to investigate the use of computers to support the
editing of maps, to avoid the expensive and slow process of hand
correction and redrafting.
 Brief History of GIS…….
• It was not until 1995, that the first Country (Great Britain) achieved
complete digital map coverage in a database.

• Remote Sensing also contributed to the development of GIS as a source of

technology as well as a source of data.

• GIS took off in the early 1980’s, when the prices of computer hardware had
fallen to a level that could sustain a significant software industry and cost
effective application

• Increased access to data and technological advances such as having smaller

more powerful computers with greater storage capacity has helped the
field to develop rapidly.
Historical Background Traditional GIS
Geographic information is
traditionally 'stored' in
analogue format on paper
maps.

• # Analogue Maps

• CAM/CAC
• Digital Cartography
• GIS
# Kenyan situation ??
 Various terminologies

• geographic data,
• Spatial data
• Geospatial data,
• geographic information,
• geo-informatics
 Geographic Data: Definitions
• Geographic data
• Geographic data can be defined as a class of spatial data in which the frame is the surface
and/or near-surface of the Earth. 'Geographic' is the right word for graphic presentation
(e.g., maps) of features and phenomena on or near the Earth's surface.
• Geographic data uses different feature types (raster, points, lines, or polygons) to uniquely
identify the location and/or the geographical boundaries of spatial (location based)
entities that exist on the earth surface.
• Geographic data are a significant subset of spatial data, although the terms geographic,
spatial, and geospatial are often used interchangeably.

• Spatial data
• Data about (related to) “space” and contain information on position e.g [x,y] or
[longitude, latitude]
• Geospatial data
• Spatial data that has been “georeferenced” i.e., has been referenced to the earth’s surface
• Geospatial data is to develop information about features, objects, and classes on Earth's
surface and/or near Earth's surface
 Geospatial Data………..
• Stored in GIS (points, lines, areas, … ), and represented on maps
(dots, dashes, patches, …)
• When stored in a database these geospatial data are usually divided
into locational data, attribute data, and temporal data
• Locational data - refers to the geometrical aspects (position and
dimensions) of the phenomenon
• Attribute data - refers to other, non-geometrical characteristics.
• Temporal data - refers to the moment in time for which both the
geometric and attribute data are valid
• The three aspects are linked to the questions Where?, What?, and
When?
 Geographic Information
Geographic information is:

• information about places on the Earth's surface

• knowledge about where something is
• knowledge about what is at a given location
(GOODCHILD 1997)

Note: Sometimes used interchangeably with geospatial data

Geoinformatics
• Geoinformatics is that discipline that deals with all aspects of spatial data
handling.
• It is defined as the integration of different disciplines dealing with spatial
information.
• Geoinformatics has also been described as “the science and technology dealing
with the structure and character of spatial information, its capture, its
classification and qualification, its storage, processing, portrayal and
dissemination, including the infrastructure necessary to secure optimal use of
this information” (GROOT, 1989).
• EHLERS and AMER (1991) define it as “the art, science or technology dealing
with the acquisition, storage, processing production, presentation and
dissemination of geoinformation.”
• A related term that is sometimes used synonymously with geoinformatics is
geomatics
Various Types of Information systems:
Information systems may be classified as:
1) Non-spatial Information Systems
2) Spatial Information Systems

• Non-Information Systems are traditional systems that do not store and

display spatial Information.
• Examples include:-Transaction processing systems (TPS) or Management
Information System (MIS) in business.
• The outputs of these systems are usually either tables or graphs.
• The outputs of information systems, however are not limited to tables or
graphs but also include the dynamic presentation of maps.
 Sub-categories of spatial information systems
• Based on capabilities, spatial information systems can be subcategorized
into:
1) Spatial Design Systems (CAD)
2) Land-use Information Systems (LIS), and
3) Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
• Spatial Information Systems including CAD, LIS and GIS, allow users to
accurately and effectively create and maintain spatial data and maps
• Both LIS and GIS can store and manage spatial and attribute information
• Only GIS have the capabilities to perform spatial analysis
• The functionalities for management, manipulation, and analysis of attributes
and spatial data distinguish GIS from most map drawing systems,
• … even though they share similar capabilities for displaying spatial maps.
Sub-categories of spatial information systems

• MIS and GIS are similar in their functionality of Storing,

Analyzing and Retrieving attribute data

• Only GIS, however have analytical functionalities that use both

the spatial and attribute data.

• Hence, GIS could provide distinct tools – map visualization and

spatial analysis for spatial decisions not found in MIS.
 Classification of Information Systems Capabilities
Information Systems Visualization Analysis

Spatial Attribute Spatial Attribute

Non-spatial Info System
• Transaction Processing Y
Systems
• Management Information Y Y
Systems
• Decision Support Systems Y Y

Spatial Information Systems

Spatial design Systems Y Y
Land-use Information Systems Y Y
Geographic Information Systems Y Y Y Y
Classification of Information Systems Capabilities
• Many government agencies have established operational
land information systems
• …..and are making decisions based on analysis of data
within those systems that directly affect the daily lives of
citizens

• Examples include: -
• Taxing, permitting, service delivery, zoning, districting and
similar decisions
 Why is GIS Unique?
• GIS handle is able handle SPATIAL information
• Information referenced by its location in space
• GIS provides a link between Spatial and Non-Spatial data
• GIS makes connections between activities based on spatial
proximity
PART 2: GIS

• Objectives
• Explain why GIS is a hot topic (Why GIS ?)
• Explain the Benefits of GIS
• Shortcomings of a GIS
 Why GIS ?
• Poor maintenance of Geospatial data
• Maps and statistics are often out of date
• Data and information are inaccurate
• Inconsistency of Geospatial data
• Lack of standards
• No sharing of geospatial data
• No retrieval capacities
• Lack of scientific decision making
 Benefits of a GIS
• Geospatial data is maintained in a standard format
• Easy to revise and edit
• Search, analysis and representation much easier
• Possibility of value added products – better information
• Possible to share and exchange data
• Productivity more improved
• Reduces costs – we can survey >100 Ha (1km2) in a day
• Saves time – large areas surveyed up to 50 times faster than ground-based
land surveying with multiple teams allowing rapid deployment
• Improve safety – survey hazardous areas with minimal ground access and
less time on site due to rapid data collection
• Leads to better decision making - more detailed and up-to-date than off-
the-shelf data
 Shortcomings of GIS
• High initial capital investment
• Re-organization of staff
• Training & retraining of staff
• High maintenance costs
• Hardware / Software upgrades

• NB/The benefits that GIS offers far outweigh the shortcomings

• ‘GIS is a complex information technology which requires a lot of
planning in order to have a successful implementation.’
(Bestebreurtje1997)
 THE END

END OF LECTURE I