AIRCRAFT DESIGN

AAE 400/401
AERONAUTICAL/ASTRONAUTICAL DEPARTMENT
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
KWARA STATE UNIVERSITY
ENGINEER ABDULBAQI JINADU
 CHAPTER 1

CLASSIFICATION OF AIRCRAFTS
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 CLASSIFICATION OF AIRCRAFTS
 CONTENT

1. ACCORDING TO PURPOSE
2. ACCORDING TO AERODYNAMIC CONFIGURATION
3. ACCORDING TO THE NUMBER OF WINGS
4. ACCORDING TO ENGINE TYPE
5. ACCORDING TO LANDING GEAR
6. ACCORDING TO TAKE OFF AND LANDING MODE
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 ACCORDING TO PURPOSE

RANGE MASS
SHORT (<2,000KM)
CIVIL MEDIUM (<4,000KM)
(PASSENGER) LONG (<9,000KM)
INTERCONTINENTAL (>11,000KM)
LIGHT (UP TO 10t)
CARGO MEDIUM (UP TO 40t)
HEAVY (> 40t)

SPECIAL- ambulance plane, agricultural, reconnaissance (ice patrol, fish

PURPOSE searching), fire-prevention, aerial photography, trainers etc
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 ACCORDING TO AERODYNAMIC CONFIGURATION
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 ACCORDING TO AERODYNAMIC CONFIGURATION
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
• Forward view is good • Horizontal stabilizer provides
• Safest for civil transport negative lift to provide the flight
• Flight control is easy stability, hence reducing total lift of
CLASSIC
airplane.
• Operation of Horizontal Stabilizer is
disturbed by the wing.
• Horizontal stabilizer operates in an • Induced drag is more than classic
undisturbed flow and aids stability by • Dangerous Take off and landing
CANARD providing positive lift. modes due to close ground
• Aerodynamic Center is backwards which proximity.
makes it faster and easier to control. • Downward view is poor
• High wing stiffness for Torsion aids its • Absence of Elevators makes control
TAILLESS Aeroelastic abilities. less easy.
• High Maneuverability
• Lowest air drag • Control is hardest, hence the need
• Lowest structural weight for Automation.
FLYING WING
• destabilizing moment on its vertical axis is
minor as fuselage is absent.
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 ACCORDING TO THE NUMBER OF WINGS

BI-PLANES MONOPLANES

IMAGE

The bi-planes have 2 wings (one over Mono planes have one wing (broken into
the other). Its lower wing is displaced 2 outer wings either side of the fuselage
backwards with regards to the upper length). It is generally characterized by
DESCRIPTION for the following reasons. • Lower drag
• Reduce interference drag • Higher mass
• Provides needed center of gravity
• Good downward view
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➢ ACCORDING TO THE NUMBER OF WINGS

BI-PLANES
+ Small wing mass
+ Less wing loading

- High drag (with increase in speed)

LOW WING MONOPLANES

+ Screening effect aids take off and landing
+ Smaller heights of Landing gear struts (less mass and easier to store)
+ Safety chances higher as touchdown occurs on wing that protects the fuselage.
+ In the event of ditching, wing provides buoyancy giving enough time for evacuation.
+ Ease of engine maintenance

- Increase in interference drag

- Poor downward view
- Risk of Foreign objects getting into engine air intakes due close proximity to runway.
- Risk of engine crashing against runway during bank landing (because they are underwing)
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➢ ACCORDING TO THE NUMBER OF WINGS

MID WING MONOPLANES

+ Lesser interference drag (in comparison to low wing)
+ Gives room for freight compartments in under belly of the fuselage wing loading

- Complexity of applying TORSION BOX design configurations in the wings (wing structure intersects
passenger/cargo compartment).
- Poor rearward view
- Increased heights of Landing gear struts when compared to low wing (more mass)

HIGH WING MONOPLANES

+ Lowest interference drag
+ Good downward view
+ Layout of passenger compartments is simplified.
+ Loading and Unloading of Aircraft is simplified which also reduces chances of wing damage.
+ Ease of engine maintenance

- Complexity in the arrangement of landing gear struts on the wings.

- Complexity of engine maintenance as its mounted on wings.
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➢ ACCORDING TO THE NUMBER OF WINGS

CANTILEVER / SEMI CANTILEVER MONOPLANES

Coined from monoplanes, Cantilever monoplanes are attached to a fuselage at the root section of
outer wings only, while Semi Cantilever monoplanes are attached as same but has a brace as one
more additional structure.

+ Low mass

- Limited to low speeds Aircraft

PARASOL AIRCRAFT
Also coined from monoplanes, the Parasol has its wings above the fuselage (attached by brace
system)
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ACCORDING TO THE NUMBER OF WINGS

MID WING MONOPLANES

+ Lesser interference drag (in comparison to low wing)
+ Gives room for freight compartments in under belly of the fuselage wing loading

- Complexity of applying TORSION BOX design configurations in the wings (wing structure intersects
passenger/cargo compartment).
- Poor rearward view
- Increased heights of Landing gear struts when compared to low wing (more mass)

HIGH WING MONOPLANES

+ Lowest interference drag
+ Good downward view
+ Layout of passenger compartments is simplified.
+ Loading and Unloading of Aircraft is simplified which also reduces chances of wing damage.
+ Ease of engine maintenance

- Complexity in the arrangement of landing gear struts on the wings.

- Complexity of engine maintenance as its mounted on wings.
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➢ ACCORDING TO ENGINE TYPE

PROPELLER AND JET

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➢ ACCORDING TO LANDING GEAR

TAIL WHEEL LANDING GEAR NOSE WHEEL LANDING GEAR

BICYCLE LANDING GEAR MULTI-WHEEL LANDING GEAR

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➢ ACCORDING TO TAKE OFF AND LANDING MODE

VTOL (Vertical Take off and Landing)

 Helicopters
 Quadcopters

HTOL (Horizontal Take off and Landing)

 Fixed wing Aircrafts

SPACECRAFTS
 CHAPTER 2

GENERAL REQUIREMENTS FOR AIRCRAFT

STRUCTURE
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 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS FOR AIRCRAFT STRUCTURE

 CONTENT

1. STIFFNESS REQUIREMENTS
2. STRENGTH REQUIREMENTS
3. MANUFACTURING REQUIREMENTS
4. OPERATIONAL REQUIREMENTS
5. RELIABILITY AND SURVIVAL REQUIREMENTS
6. ECOLOGICAL REQUIREMENTS
7. MINIMUM MASS REQUIREMENTS
8. AIRCRAFT EXISTENCE EQUATION
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 AERODYNAMIC REQUIREMENTS

𝐶𝑙
▪ Definite values of coefficients 𝐶𝐷 , 𝐶𝐿 and 𝜅 = must be provided by the structure.
𝐶𝑑
▪ Surface of units should have small roughness.
▪ Original unit shape should not change under load
▪ Should not be wavy.
▪ Fasteners (bolts and rivets) should not project to the extremities of the unit.
▪ Units used at certain modes (Take off and Landing) should have the least effect on 𝐶𝐷 and 𝐶𝐿
when in operative.
▪ Units flying at high speed should be HERMETIC to avoid air overflow which leads to flow
disturbance and stall.
▪ Hatches and Access panels (for inspection and servicing) should be situated far away from high
pressure zones, but never at refracted zones.
▪ Units which do not carry Aerodynamic load should be removed from surface or covered by
fairings.
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 STIFFNESS AND STRENGTH REQUIREMENTS (GENERAL)

▪ Aircraft design should withstand all kind of loads during (Take Off, Landing and
runway) in accordance with Aviation Rules
▪ Bending and Torsion properties of units and their arrangement layout should
eliminate the possibility of flutter, divergence and other dangerous types of
oscillations.
▪ Stress in members should not exceed values of elastic limit of their materials.
▪ Absolute values of units elastic deformation should not result in malfunction of the
functioning modes (e.g. ) elastic bending on a control surface under load should not
result in its locking.
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 STRENGTH REQUIREMENTS
The strength requirements is characterized by its ability to withhold loading.

▪ Usage of High-Strength materials

▪ Decrease of a stress concentration
▪ Hardening of units surface layers
▪ Usage of special high resource fastners
▪ Usage of special coating for structural members
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 STIFFNESS REQUIREMENTS
The stiffness of a structure is characterized by its ability to be deformed under the action of
outside loads.
▪ Usage of materials with high modulus of elasticity.
▪ rational choice of constructive members shape, semi finished items and blanks
▪ Installation of special stiffness.

Consequences of low stiffness are Large deformations (sags, twist, buckling) which can
result in.
▪ Change in exterior form.
▪ Deterioration of Aircraft stability and control
▪ Origin of dangerous vibrations
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 MANUFACTURING REQUIREMENTS
The is a structural property that allows for easy and fast manufacture of materials, hence
lower man-power resources and cost.

▪ Simplicity of units shape

▪ Usage of line surfaces
▪ Partitioning structures into parts
▪ Usage of readily treated materials.
▪ Extensive use of standardized parts.
▪ Reduction (to the barest minimum) of the requirements for accuracy and surface
roughness.
▪ Unification of parts and assemblies
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 OPERATIONAL REQUIREMENTS

1. Sufficient access to units/assemblies for periodical checks, repair and replacement.

▪ Installation of observation and assembly connectors, hatchets and doors.
▪ Installation of removable units/assemblies
▪ Installation of supporting platforms/assemblies for lifting and transportation.
▪ Unification of units and assemblies.

2. The possibility of quick loading and unloading

▪ Installation of hatches-ladders
▪ Installation of overhead-track hoist
▪ Installation of conveyers
▪ Adjusting of undercarriage leg height.

3. The possibility of operation under different weather conditions and storage in open air during service life.
▪ Installation of environment resistant materials
▪ Application of corrosion-resistant and protective coatings
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 RELIABILITY AND SURVIVAL REQUIREMENTS

Reliability is the structural ability to perform its functions with preservation of the operation
during service life. While the means to check the reliability requirements are constant
inspection, application redundancy and duplication. Reliability itself depends on:
▪ Structural complexity
▪ Manufacturing quality (workmanship)
▪ Operating conditions

Survivability is the structural ability to perform its functions under a partial damage.
▪ Rational choice of constructive and bearing schemes
▪ Dividing design units into parts
▪ Load bearing members dispersal.
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 ECOLOGICAL REQUIREMENTS

The aim of this is to reduce the unfavorable effects of an Aircraft on the environment.
The two types of harmful effects of an Aircraft is Noise and Atmospheric pollution.
the solution is for designers to keep these pollutions as low as possible.
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 MINIMUM MASS REQUIREMENTS

It is not difficult for a competent designer to meet all aforementioned requirements but
those requirements should be met with a minimum mass (of both units and
components) which in fact is the most important, yet difficult part of designing an
Aircraft.
All aforementioned requirements are difficult to meet theoretically as they conflict
each which is why we have to try variant designs and reasonable compromise while
designing.
After these, the Aircraft is tested and certified for use.
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AIRCRAFT EXISTENCE EQUATION


𝒎𝟎 = 𝒎𝒌 + 𝒎𝒆𝒑 + 𝒎𝒇 + 𝒎𝒆𝒒 + 𝒎𝒄 + 𝒎𝒄𝒓

 𝒎𝟎 : Aircraft take off mass

 𝒎𝒌 : Aircraft Structural Mass
 𝒎𝒆𝒑 : Propulsion System Mass
 𝒎𝒇 : Fuel Mass
 𝒎𝒆𝒒 : Equipment Mass
 𝒎𝒄 : Useful Load (Cargo) Mass
 𝒎𝒄𝒓 : Crew Mass
This is called the MASS BALANCE EQUATION
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 AIRCRAFT EXISTENCE EQUATION

If we divide mass balance equation by 𝒎𝟎 , we have
𝟏 = 𝒎𝒌 + 𝒎𝒆𝒑 + 𝒎𝒇 + 𝒎𝒆𝒒 + 𝒎𝒄 + 𝒎𝒄𝒓
This is called the AIRCRAFT EXISTENCE EQUATION

𝒎𝒄 + 𝒎𝒄𝒓
𝒎𝟎 =
𝟏 − (𝒎𝒌 + 𝒎𝒆𝒑 + 𝒎𝒇 + 𝒎𝒆𝒒 + 𝒎𝒄 + 𝒎𝒄𝒓 )
This is formula for TAKEOFF MASS of an Aircraft
 CHAPTER 3

AIRCRAFT WINGS
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 AIRCRAFT WINGS
 CONTENT

1. INTRODUCTION
2. AIRCRAFT WINGS REQUIREMENT
3. GEOMETRICAL PARAMETERS
4. WING EXTERIOR SHAPES
5. AIRFOIL
6. WING LOADS
7. LOAD CARRYING STRUCTURES OF WINGS
8. SWEPT BACK WINGS
9. SWEPT FORWARD WINGS
10. DELTA WINGS
11. PIVOTED WINGS
12. JOINTED WINGS
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 INTRODUCTION
The wing is designed in a series of airfoils shapes to generate aerodynamic lift. Aside this,
it also provides lateral stability and control.

 AIRCRAFT WINGS REQUIREMENT

▪ Least possible aerodynamic drag
▪ Greatest increment of lift coefficient with application of high lift devices.
▪ Provide stability and control at all flight phases.
▪ Aerodynamic changes and super critical angles of attack should be gradual, smooth but
not abrupt.
▪ The change of a wings mean aerodynamical center during an increase of speed should as
minimal as possible.
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 GEOMETRICAL PARAMETERS
The wing is designed in a series of airfoils shapes to generate aerodynamic lift. Aside this, it also
provides lateral stability and control.

▪ 𝒃: Wing Chord
▪ 𝑺𝝎 : Wing Area
▪ 𝝌: Sweep angle
▪ ℒ: Wing Span
▪ 𝒃𝒐 : Root Chord
▪ 𝒃𝒌 : Tip Chord
▪ 𝝀: Wing Aspect Ratio
▪ 𝜼: Wing Taper Ratio
▪ 𝒃𝚨 : Mean Aerodynamic Chord
▪ 𝜬𝒐 : Specific Wing Loading
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 WING EXTERIOR SHAPES
The wing shape in appreciably determined by assignment of an
airplane, and its selection for many reasons remains
compromise. As a rule, the wing should be symmetric.

1. Rectangular wing: was applied in the beginning of aviation

development. It is applied in a general aviation now.

+ Manufacturing simplicity.

2. Elliptical wing: is the most expedient for the aerodynamic

characteristics,

+ lowest drag and high lift-to-drag ratio at subsonic speeds.

- its complicated shape makes expensive its manufacturing,
therefore now it is almost not applied.
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3. Tapered wing: is close to elliptical one according fo the

aerodynamic characteristics
+ Manufacturing simplicity.

4. Swept wing: The swept wings are the most used for
airplanes, which develop high subsonic and low supersonic
speeds.

5. Delta wing: is applied for supersonic speeds. As we know,

the wave drag is of great importance on such flight phases.
Wave drag has substantially depends on c (at supersonic
speed quadratic relation). The delta wing has considerably
greater chord b in comparison with swept wing. Therefore
thickness ratio, equal c=Cmab, will be significantly smaller
(at identical values of an absolute airfoil maximum height
C), and drag will decrease too.
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 AIRFOIL
They give the wing its streamline shape over the cross section of its total area. They are subdivided
into 3 classes.

 CLASSES OF AIRFOIL
▪ Thick c > 12% (0.12)
▪ Mean 12% > c > 6% (0.12 > c > 0.06)
▪ Thin c < 6% (c < 0.06)

Usually, value C = 8…20% is for subsonic, while C = 3…9% is for supersonic.

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 AIRFOIL SECTION SHAPES

1. CONVEX: High aerodynamic characteristics at moderate subsonic speed , when air compressibility effect is insignificant.

2. CONVEX-CONCAVE: They have high lift ability and are applied to airplanes with low speeds. Their application became
inexpedient with increase of speeds owing to high drag.

3. LAMINAR FLOW: They demand heightened quality of wing surface treatment.

4. SYMMETRICAL: They have the lowest drag at high subsonic speeds and are applied for subsonic airplanes and for tail units of
majority of Aircrafts.

5. WEDGED SHAPED: They have the lowest drag at high supersonic speeds.

6. DOUBLE WEDGE: They are theoretically the most useful for supersonic (hypersonic) speeds.

7. LENTICULAR AIRFOILS: have acute edges

8. SUPERCRITICAL

9. S-SECTION: Also known as “self-stable” are applied to Aircrafts like Flying wings and tailless.
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 WING LOADS

Aerodynamics loads appear as a result of interaction of a wing with airflow according to the
way of application. The total aerodynamic force consist of 2 parts X and Y.
X is neglected as the force acts in an aircrafts wing chord.

AERODYNAMIC LOAD = 𝚸 = 𝐘 = 𝒎𝒈𝒏𝒆 𝒇

▪ m = Aircraft mass
▪ 𝒏𝒆 = manoeuvring load factor
▪ 𝒇 = safety margin
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 WING LOADS
𝒎𝒈𝒏𝒆 𝒇
PER UNIT LENGTH AERODYNAMIC LOAD (effective at 0.25 chords) = 𝒒𝒘 = 𝒃
𝑺

▪ S = Aircraft wing area

▪ b = wing chord
𝒎𝑴 𝒈𝒏𝒆 𝒇
PER UNIT LENGTH MASS LOAD (effective at 0.45 chords) = 𝒒𝑴 = 𝒃
𝑺

▪ 𝒎𝑴 = Aircraft wing mass

CONCENTRATED MASS LOAD = 𝑷𝒊 = 𝒎𝒊 𝒈𝒏𝒆 𝒇
▪ 𝒎𝒊 = mass of unit (or cargo)
(𝒎 − 𝒎𝑴 )𝒈𝒏𝒆 𝒇
SUMMARY LOAD PER UNIT LENGTH = 𝒒𝚺 = 𝒒𝒘 − 𝒒𝑴 = 𝒃
𝑺

Lateral force Q, bending moment 𝑴𝒃 and torque 𝑴𝒕 act to the wing from effects of external
load. They cause the normal stresses 𝝈 (both stretching and compression) and shearing stress
𝝉 in structural members.
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 STRUCTURAL AND OPERATION OF MAIN LOAD BEARING MEMBERS

Members of structures can be divided into LOAD BEARING MEMBERS (MAIN) and NON
BEARING ONES.
LOAD BEARING MEMBERS (MAIN) take transmission of various force influence and loads

TWO of many requirements placed upon load bearing are;

 SPECIFIC STRENGTH (not maximum, but specific, no more or less)
 MINIMUM MASS
… others include keeping exterior shape, rigidity, manufacturability, reliability etc
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 STRUCTURAL AND OPERATION OF MAIN LOAD BEARING MEMBERS
LOAD BEARING MEMBERS (MAIN) include LONGITUDINAL and TRANSVERSE frameworks.

➢ LONGITUDINAL framework includes spars, false spars, stringers.

➢ TRANSVERSE framework includes ribs, bulkheads.
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 STRUCTURAL AND OPERATION OF MAIN LOAD BEARING MEMBERS
SPAR: is a longitudinal beam that takes bending moment 𝑴𝒃 , lateral force Q, and torque 𝑴𝒕
(partially)

SPAR DESIGNS:
➢ Beam Type: can either be Monolithic or Modular
➢ Truss Type:
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 STRUCTURAL AND OPERATION OF MAIN LOAD BEARING MEMBERS
RIBS: they provide Airfoil shape, take aerodynamical load from the skin and stringers and
transmit it to the spars. They also take forces of intrinsic pressure in tank sections.

RIB DESIGNS:
➢ Beam Type: can either be usual, frame type or two standard
▪ consists of rib nose, mid range, tailpiece, rib caps and cut out for stringers
▪ Can be divided into normal and reinforced which takes concentrated forces from engine
mounts points, landing gear struts etc.
▪ Rib pitch ranges from 200mm to 500mm

➢ Truss Type: consists of caps, struts and braces.

▪ Its members operate with normal stresses
▪ Used during light load intensities.
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 STRUCTURAL AND OPERATION OF MAIN LOAD BEARING MEMBERS

FALSE SPAR: they have weaker caps compared to normal spars. They take torque 𝑴𝒕
(together with the spar web and skin) and shear force Q (together with a spar web), but does
not operate on bending moment.

RIB DESIGNS:
➢ Monolithic or Modular:
  STRUCTURAL AND OPERATION OF MAIN LOAD BEARING MEMBERS 3
SKIN:
▪ ensures the established shape of a wing surface and makes it impermeable for air.
▪ It takes up local air load.
▪ It is 25…50% of total wing mass.

STRINGER:
▪ They take axial tensile and compression stresses (together with the skin)
▪ They perceive local aerodynamic loads (together with skin)
▪ Spacing on stringers range from 100…400 mm based on many factors.
  STRUCTURAL AND OPERATION OF MAIN LOAD BEARING MEMBERS 3
PANELS:

MODULAR PANEL MONOLITHIC PANEL SANDWICH PANEL

+ high survivability + low mass + lower weight

+ high aerodynamic surface + High aerodynamic surface
+ less numbers of linking joints + high tightness
+ High tightness + high thermal insulation
+ less number of stress raisers + high sound insulation
+ lower manpower large manufacture + very high survivability

- Increased mass - Low survivability - Linkage complexity

- Waviness of surface - High manpower (small manufacture) - Difficulty in production
- Repair complexity inspection
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 LOAD CARRYING STRUCTURES OF WINGS

LOAD CARRYING STRUCTURE: is a combination and mutual placement of the unit members,
which take up main load carrying factors acting on a structure. It is determined by
▪ Quantity
▪ Arrangement
▪ Level of participation of separate members

There are 3 types of LOAD CARRYING STRUCTURES OF WINGS

▪ Spar type wings
▪ Torsion box wings
▪ Monoblock wings
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 LOAD CARRYING STRUCTURES OF WINGS
SPAR TYPE WINGS:
+ its more practical from mass point of view during low load intensities.
- Low survivability (loss of lift during destruction of spar)

TORSION BOX TYPE WINGS:

+ they take up torsion effectively.
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 LOAD CARRYING STRUCTURES OF WINGS
MONOBLOCK TYPE WINGS:
The spars are degenerated into false spars
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 DESIGN FEATURE OF SWEPT BACK WINGS
▪ Found its application when aviation approached the sound barrier.
▪ Widely us on Aircrafts with high subsonic and low super sonic speeds.
  DESIGN FEATURE OF SWEPT BACK WINGS 3
▪ ARRANGEMENT OF WINGS IN A SWEPT WING
BY THE AIRFLOW AT THE ANGLE OF RAM ENGINE

+ desired airfoil shape retained +shorter ribs (lesser bending moment, lesser mass)
+ lesser drag (ribs arranged parallel to airflow) + critical stress of surface buckling is high
+ critical stress of surface buckling is low + Angle between rib web and rib cap is constant which
makes manufacturing easier
+ rib attachment to longitudinal members is simplified.
- Longer ribs (more bending moment, more mass) - Difficult to retain airfoil shape
- Angle between rib web and rib cap is variable which - Higher drag
makes manufacturing difficult.
- Rib attachment to longitudinal primary members
(spars, stringers) is difficult they meet at an angle.
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 DESIGN FEATURE OF SWEPT FORWARD WINGS
+ lateral and rolling stability is at high angles of attack
+ higher manoeuvrability at high angles of attack
+ less probability for spinning
+ makes different design configuration approach possible
+ simpler to observe the area rule

- It has low values of critical speed of divergence

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 DESIGN FEATURE FOR DELTA WINGS
+ They have greater chords b compared to swept back which reduces its drag
+ wing root has large inner volumes for fuel storage, unit or landing gear struts.
+ Its large chords allow for multi spar design which increases wing survivability.
+ its lift devices are arranged perpendicularly to the airflow aiding their effectiveness.
+ aeroelasticity is high

- Effectiveness of leading edge device is reduced because of high sweep angle

- Short span of trailing edge devices.
- Not to high lift coefficient.
- High landing speeds which reduces landing safety.
  DESIGN FEATURE FOR PIVOTED WINGS
3
These types of wings can turn relative to the vertical, lateral and longitudinal axis. They are mostly
used on decks where wing span space is limited.

+ take-off and landing performance ls high. It results from considerable value of CLmar at low
values of sweep.
+ fuel consumption is reduced at subsonic speed.
+ manoeuvrability is Increased
+ load factors are reduced during turbulence.

- wing structure weight is increased 4% average

- swivelling fuel tank and cargo pylons are necessary
- wing structure is complicated.
- routing the communication arranged in the wing to a fuselage portion is complicated
- wing bending-torsional stiffness is low.
- Wing reliability, survivability and service life are reduced
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 DESIGN FEATURE FOR JOINTED WINGS
+ Lower mass.
+ Increasing lift to drag ratio applying thinner Airfoils
+ Increasing flight speed due to possibility of applying thinner Airfoils
+ Increasing the flexural-torsional stiffness of the two-wing system (2) .

- Possibility of increasing interference drag in the area of the wing joint.

- Influence of front wing on the trailing wing during high angles of attack.
 CHAPTER 4

STRUCTURAL MEMBERS JOINING

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 STRUCTURAL MEMBERS JOINING

 CONTENT

1. JOINING AND JOINTS

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 JOINING AND JOINTS

The necessity of the joints is based on the following.

- Aircraft parts have different principles of operations.
- Prescence of access doors and members
- Division of aircraft parts into parts simplifies its manufacturing, maintenance and reduces
production cost.

Basic requirements
- Joining members must reduce the its strength.
- Joint zone must be as strong as possible like the regular zones
- Stiffness of the joint zone must be changed gradually avoid great values of stress concentration.
- Sufficient fatigue life
- Accessibility for installation removal and repairs.
 4

 JOINING AND JOINTS (Classification)

- According to arrangement of attaching members (spot, continuous and combined)

- According to loading of attaching members (tensile, shear and combined load)
- According to indication of mobility and detachability.
1. Fixed Permanent: They cannot be disassembled without breaking the structural members. E.g. stringer to
skin
2. Fixed Detachable: joints can be disassembled without breaking the structural members. E.g. Wing to
fuselage joint
3. Low-Slip Detachable: Joints are performed with screws, bolts, nuts, pins etc. They allow the members to shift
ultimate breaking load does not act on the joints. E.g Joining of LG strut retracted into the fuselage.
4. Slip Detachable: Joints are performed with screws, bolts, nuts, pins etc. They allow the members to shift
ultimate breaking load acts on the joints. E.g Aileron hinge fitting, variable geometry wing in flight.

Note: The most common detachable joints are threaded.

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 JOINING AND JOINTS

1. Bolts and Screws: They differ in material, diameter, thread pitch, cut portion length, head and spin shapes.

2. Nuts and Pins: They also differ (Hexagonal, square, cylindrical with a slot for a screwdriver, anchor nuts,
sealed nuts).

3. Riveting: most common. Round, flat, countersunk. It is carried out by kicking method, pressing method.

4. Soldering: process of performing the joints of metal parts in heated state by means of melted metal (solder)

5. Welding: process of joining metallic parts by heating the surfaces to the point of melting. Examples are
✓ Arc Welding (joining parts with considerable thickness)
✓ Argon arc welding (joining parts of aluminum)
✓ Resistance spot and load welding (joining sheets of up to 6 mm)
✓ Gas welding: (carried out with a welding torch supplied with oxygen and acetylene)
✓ Ultrasonic welding: Founded on using the high frequency oscillations causing heating in contact areas.
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 JOINING AND JOINTS
 4

 JOINING AND JOINTS

The Main Advantage of welded joints is minimum weight.

The Main Disadvantage of welded joints are:

- Formation of residual stress in the weld.
- Warping hazard of the structure.

BONDED JOINTS: have high fatigue life, tightness, good surface quality, low cost.
 JOINING AND JOINTS 4

Unit Attachment Fittings

They are subdivided into lumped (concentrated) and contour (distributed).

Lumped joints (eye fork, attachment fitting and fitting)

Contour joints (fitting joints, flanged joints, angle joints, plano-hinge joints, shear joints)
 CHAPTER 5

AILERONS
 5

 AILERONS
 CONTENT

1. PARAMETERS
2. PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION
3. COMPENSATIONS
 5
 AILERONS
They are control surfaces representing part of the wing intended for bakancing and control
oof the Aircraft relative to to axis Ox.

Parameters

Principle of Operation
Upward deflection generates local lift
Downward deflection causes loss of local lift.
 5

 AILERONS (Aerodynamic Characteristics and Compensations)

- Compensation of Hinge moment.

- Axial Compensation
- Horn aerodynamic compensation
- Balancing tab
- Spring tab
- Servo tab (formerly known as Flettner tabs)
- Trim tab (Trimmer)
 CHAPTER 6

HIGH LIFT DEVICES

 6

 HIGH LIFT DEVICES

 CONTENT

1. PURPOSE
2. CLASSIFICATION
3. REQUIREMENT TO THE HIGH LIFT DEVICES 𝑪𝑳 𝑺
4. HIGH LIFT DEVICES (WINGS TRAILING EDGE)
5. HIGH LIFT DEVICES (WINGS LEADING EDGE)
6. ADAPTIVE WING (APPLICATION)
7. POWERED HIGH LIFT DEVICES
8. COMBINED HIGH LIFT DEVICES
9. DEVICES FOR INCREASING 𝑪𝑫 𝑺
10. DEVICES FOR IMPROVING STALL CHARACTERISTICS
 6

 HIGH LIFT DEVICES

Purpose
▪ Decreasing Lift-off speed
▪ Decreasing take-off run
▪ Decreasing landing-run
▪ Increasing maneuvering performance

Classification
▪ For wing bearing capacity 𝑪𝑳 𝑺
▪ For increasing drag 𝑪𝑫 𝑺
 6

Requirement to the High Lift Devices 𝑪𝑳 𝑺

▪ Producing lift force that is equal to the Aircraft weight at possible lower speeds.
▪ When not in use, High lift device should not produce additional drag during flying modes.
▪ Must produce needed lift during take-off without adding drag
▪ Must provide safe take-off and climb of multiengine Aircraft with one failed engine.
▪ Its tolerance limits must change easily during extension and retraction.
High Lift Devices (Wings trailing edge) 6

NAME IMAGE
Split Flaps

(Plain, extending, fowler,

godge and TsAHI) types

Flaps

(Plain, slotted, extension single

slotted, extension double
slotted and Flaperon)
High Lift Devices (Wings Leading edge) 6

NAME IMAGE

Slats

(Fixed, Aerodynamically
operated and turned down slat
operation)

Flaps

(Krueger, Leading edge)

 6

Adaptive Wing (application)

- Capability of cruise lift-drag ratio optimization

- Roll controllability
- Used to check load shift caused by maneuverability
- Direct lift control
- Ability to respond to atmospheric disturbances.
Powered High Lift Devices 6

Combined High Lift Devices

 6

Devices for Increasing 𝑪𝑫 𝑺

1. Speed brakes of “Crocodile” type

2. Deflected Speed brakes

3. Flap speed brakes

4. Drag parachute and Thrust reversers

 6

Devices for Improving stall characteristics

1. Geometric wing twist
2. Aerodynamic wing twist
3. Aerodynamic fences
4. Profiling slots, vortex generators and bend on wings leading edge
5. Application of wing tip slats
6. Sweep forward wings
7. Application of lift dampers
8. Application of spoilers
 6
Devices for Improving stall characteristics
SEE YOU IN THE EXAMINATION HALL