Chapter 1 Class Notes on Introduction to Communication Systems-ECEG-3210

Chapter one
Introduction to Electronic Communication and Spectral

Analysis

1. Introduction to Electronic Communication

The goal of communication is to transfer information from one place to another.

This is done by sending the information as electromagnetic energy through vacuum,

air, wire, or strands of glass and plastic fiber.

Modern communication systems use a wide range and variety of electronic

equipment to meet the needs of users: hand held radios, satellite dish antennas,

commercial radio and television stations, radars etc.

All communication systems have at least two end points. At one end there is source

of signals (voice or computer data), circuitry for converting the signal source into a

signal that is compatible with the rest of the system, (wire, air, or light carrying

fiber). After the transmitted signal passes through this link, it is received by the

far end, converted into a signal format as needed, and finally passed to the user.

1.1. The Importance of Communications

The importance of communication can be seen in different facets in our daily lives.

The telephones in our hands

The radios and televisions in our living room

The computer terminals with access to the internet in our offices & homes

and etc

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Communication provides senses for ships on the high seas, aircraft in flight, and

rockets and satellites in space. Communication keeps weather forecaster informed

of conditions measured by multitude of sensors.

1.2. Elements of Communication System

Communication involves implicitly the transmission of information from one point to

another through succession of processes:

Generation of message signal: voice, music, computer data, picture

Description of that message signal with certain measure of precision, by set

of symbols: electrical, aural, visual

Encoding of the symbols in a form that is suitable for transmission over

physical medium

Transmission of the encoded symbols to the desired destination

Decoding and reproduction of the original symbols

Recreation of the original message signal, with definable degradation in

quality due to the imperfections in the system

There are three basic elements in every communication system: transmitter,

channel, and receiver, as shown in figure 1. The transmitter is located at some

point in space, the receiver is located at some other point, and the channel is the

physical medium that connects them.

1. Transmitter: it converts the message signal from the source of information into

a form suitable for transmission over the channel.

2. Channel: it distorts the signal due to some imperfections. Noise and interfering

signals also added to the transmitted signal.

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3. Receiver: it reconstructs the received corrupted signal due tto

o channel

imperfections, and noise and inte

interference
rference into a recognizable form of the original

message signal for the user.

Figure 1: Elements of C
Communication
ommunication system

The transducer which is not shown in figure 1 is used first. As a rule,

rule the message

produced by the source is not electrical in natu

nature. Accordingly, an input transducer

is used to convert the message generated by the source into a time-varying

time

electrical signal called the message signal. By using another transducer at the

receiver, the original message is recreated at the user destinat

destination.

Basically there are two modes of communication:

Broadcasting: it involves the use of powerful signal transmitter and

numerous receivers that are relatively inexpensive to build. Information

a
bearing signals flow in only in one direction. E.g. radio and television

communication

Point-to-Point
Point communication: communication process takes place over a

link between a single transmitter and receiver. In this case, there is usually

a bidirectional flow of information

information-bearing
bearing signals, which requires the use of

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a transmitter and receiver at each end of the link. E.g. Telephone

communication

Communication resources: The two primary communication resources

in communication systems are: transmitted power and channel bandwidth. A

general system design objective is to use these two resources as efficiently as

possible. One resource can be considered as more important than the other. So

we can have power limited and band limited communication channels. E.g.

telephone circuit is a typical band limited channel and space communication link

or satellite channel is typically power limited channel.

Sources of information: In telecommunications we have dominantly

four important sources of information: Speech, Music, Pictures, Computer data.

Modulation Process: The purpose of a communication system is to

deliver a message signal from an information source in recognizable form to a

user destination, with the source and user being physically separated from each

other. To do this, the transmitter modifies the message signal into a form

suitable for transmission over the channel. This modification is achieved by

means of a process known as modulation. It involves varying some parameters of

a carrier wave (amplitude, frequency or phase) in accordance with the message

signal. The receiver re-creates the original message signal from a degraded

version of the transmitted signal after propagation through the channel. This

re-creation is accomplished by using a process known as demodulation. It is a

reverse of the modulation process used in the transmitter.

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The modulation process can be classified as

1. Continuous-Wave (CW) Modulation: a sinusoidal wave is used as the carrier.

When the amplitude of the carrier is varied in accordance with the message

signal, we call it amplitude modulation (AM), and when the angle of the

carrier is varied, we call it angle modulation. The angle modulation may be

further subdivided into frequency modulation (FM) and phase modulation

(PM),in which the instantaneous frequency and phase of the carrier,

respectively ,are varied in accordance with the message signal

2. Pulse-Modulation: The carrier consists of a periodic sequence of

rectangular pulses. Pulse-modulation can itself be of an analog or digital

type. In analog pulse modulation, the amplitude, duration, or position of a

pulse is varied in accordance with sample values of the message signal. In

such a case, we speak of pulse-amplitude modulation (PAM) pulse-duration

modulation (PDM), and pulse-position modulation (PPM). The standard digital

form of pulse modulation is known as pulse-code modulation (PCM) that has

no CW counterpart.

1.3. Communication Channels

Depending on the mode of transmission, communication channels can be

distinguished as guided propagation and free propagation. Guided communication

includes: telephone channels, coaxial cables, and optical fibers whereas free

propagation includes wireless broadcast channels, mobile radio channels, and

satellite channels.

1.4. Analog and Digital Communication

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As a student of communication you may be aware of these two terms analog and

digital communication.

1. Analog: The electrical message signal which is continuously varying with

time. For example Speech, video and variation in temperature with time.

2. Digital: The electrical message signal which has finite number of discrete
levels. Text and Data are example of digital communication.

We have the option of using analog or digital communication system. The design of

an analog communication system is simple in conceptual terms but difficult to build

because of stringent requirements on linearity and system adjustment. The

conceptual simplicity of analog communications is due to the fact that analog

modulation techniques make relatively superficial changes to the message signal in

order to prepare it for transmission over the channel. More specifically, there is

no significant effort made by the system designer to tailor the waveform of the

transmitted signal to suit the channel at any deeper level.

Advantages Disadvantages

Analog Communication • Smaller bandwidth • Expensive analog

System • Synchronization problem components

is relatively easier • No privacy

• Cannot merge data

from different

sources

• No error correction

capability

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Digital Communication • Inexpensive digital • Larger bandwidth

System circuits • Synchronization

• Privacy preserved/data problem is

encryption/ relatively difficult

• Can merge different

data/voice, video and

data/ &transmit over a

common digital

transmission system

• Error correction by

coding

Table 1 shows the comparison of analog and digital communication system

On the other hand, digital communication theory endeavors to find a finite set of

wave forms that are closely matched to the characteristics of the channel and

which are therefore more tolerant of channel impairments. In so doing, reliable

communication over the channel is established.

Consider the case of digital communication system shown in figure 2. The source

encoder removes redundant information from the message signal and is

responsible for the efficient use of the channel. The data stream is processed

next by the channel encoder, which produces a new sequence of symbols called the

channel code word. The modulator then represents each symbol of the channel

code word by a corresponding analog symbol, to produce a waveform, which is

suitable for transmission over the channel. At the receiver, the channel output is

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processed in reverse order to that in the transmitter, there by reconstructing a

recognizable version of the original message signal. The use of digital

communication provides the capability for information transmission that is both

efficient and reliable.

Information Source Channel Digital

source and encoder encoder modulator
input
transducer

Channel

Output Source Channel Digital

Output transducer decoder decoder demodulator
signal

Figure 2: Block diagram of digital communication system

2. Spectral Analysis
A branch of mathematics which is of inestimable value in the study of

communications systems is spectral analysis. Spectral analysis concerns itself with

the description of waveforms in the frequency domain and with the

correspondence between the frequency-domain description and time-domain

description.

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Signals physically exist in the time domain and are usually expressed as a function

of the time parameter. Because of this feature, it is not too difficult, at least in

the majority of the situations of interest to us, to visualize the signal behavior in

the Time Domain. In fact, it may even be possible to view the signals on an

oscilloscope. But equally important is the characterization of the signals in the

Frequency Domain or Spectral Domain. That is, we characterize the signal in

terms of its various frequency components (or it’s Spectrum). Fourier analysis

(Fourier series and Fourier Transform) helps us in arriving at the spectral

description of the pertinent signals.

2.1 Classification of Signal

1. Real and complex signal

As the name suggests real signals have only real components while complex signal

has both real and imaginary components. Complex signal representation has an

important place in communication as it conveys both amplitude and phase, i.e. delay

information. A complex signal in exponential form can be written as follows.

 =   Where = √−1.

Magnitude of v(t), |
| =  , Phase <
= 

2. Analog and Digital Signals

Analog signals are continuous in nature while digital signals are generated from

discrete events or are sampled version of analog signal, with amplitude axis

quantized.

3. Periodic and Aperiodic Signals

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A periodic signal  (t) is a function that satisfies the condition

  =   +   1.1

For all t, where t denotes time and  is a constant. The smallest value of  that

satisfies this condition is called the period of  (t) .Accordingly, the period 

defines the duration of one

complete cycle of  (t). Fig. 3 shows a few examples of periodic signals.

Figure 3 Some examples of periodic signals

Any signal for which there is no value of  to satisfy the condition of Eq(1.1) is

called a nonperiodic or aperiodic signal.

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Aperiodic (also called nonperiodic) signals can be of finite or infinite duration. A

few of the aperiodic signals occur quote often in theoretical studies. Typical

examples of aperiodic signals are shown below.

a. Rectangular pulse

b. Triangular pulse

c. One-sided (decaying) exponential pulse

d. Two-sided (symmetrical) exponential pulse

4. Deterministic and Random Signals

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A deterministic signal is a signal about which there is no uncertainty with respect

to its value at any time. On the other hand, a random signal is a signal about which

there is some degree of uncertainty before it actually occurs.

5. Energy and Power Signals

In electrical systems, a signal may represent a voltage or a current. Consider a

voltage v(t) developed across a resistor R, producing a current i(t). The

instantaneous power dissipated in this resistor is defined by

|vt|
P= 1.2
R
Or, equivalently,
 = |it| 1.3
In both cases, the instantaneous power P is proportional to the squared amplitude

of the signal. Furthermore, for a resistor R equal to1-ohm, we see that Eqs(1.2)and

(1.3) take on the same mathematical form. Accordingly, in signal analysis it is

customary to work with a 1-ohm resistor, so that, regardless of whether a given

signal g(t) represents a voltage or a current. For this reason |gt| is generally

referred to as the normalized power of g(t). when ,however, no confusion results

from so doing ,we shall often follow the generally accepted practice of dropping

the word ‘’normalized’’ and refer instead simply ‘’power’’. We may express the

instantaneous power associated with the signal as

 = |gt| 1.4
Based on this convention, we define the total energy of a signal g(t) as
(
% = lim * |gt| dt
(→∞ ,(

= * |gt| dt 1.5
∞

,∞

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And its average power as

1 (
 = lim * |gt| dt 1.6
(→∞ 2 ,(

We say that the signal g(t) is an energy signal if and only if the total energy of

the signal satisfies the condition

0<%<∞
We say that the signal g(t) is a power signal if and only if the average power of

the signal satisfies the condition

0<<∞
Note that:

1. An energy signal has zero average power.

2. A power signal has infinite energy.

3. Periodic and random signals are power signals

4. Deterministic and nonperiodic signals are energy signals.

2.2 Fourier Series

A periodic function of time v(t) having a fundamental period T1 can be represented

as an infinite sum of sinusoidal waveforms. This summation, called a Fourier series,

may be written in several forms. One such form is the following:

278 278

 =  + 2 3 cos + 2 ;3 sin 1.7
∞ ∞

 
39: 39:

The constant  is the average value of v(t) given by

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(@
1 A
 = *
> 1.8
 ,(@A


While the coefficients 3 and ;3 are given by

(@
2 A
278
3 = *
 cos > 1.9
 ,(@A 

(@
2 A
278
;3 = *
 sin > 1.10
 ,(@A 


An alternative form for the Fourier series is

278

 = C + 2 C3 cos  − D3 1.11
∞


39:

Where C , C3 ,and D3 are related to  , 3 ,and ;3 by the equations.

C =  1.12

C3 = E3  + ;3  1.13

;3
D3 = F8,: 1.14
3
The Fourier series of a periodic function is thus seen to consist of a summation of

harmonics of a fundamental frequencyG1 = 1A . The coefficients C3 are called

1

spectral amplitudes (the amplitudes of the spectral component C3 cos 2πnG1  −

D3 F GHIJ8KL MG 8G1 ).

A typical amplitude spectrum of a periodic waveform is shown in fig 4. Here, at

each harmonic frequency, a vertical line has been drawn having a length equal to

the spectral amplitude associated with each harmonic frequency.

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Figure 4 (a) A one-sided plot spectral amplitude of a periodic waveform. (b) The

corresponding two-sided plot

The exponential form of the Fourier series finds extensive application in

communication theory. This form is given by

PπQR

 = 2 N3 e 1.15
∞
A(
@

39,∞

Where N3 is given by
(@
1 A ,PπQR
N3 = *
e @ > 1.16
A(
 ,(@A


The coefficients N3 have the property that N3 and N,3 are complex conjugates of

one another,that is N3 = N,3 ∗ . These coefficients are related to the C3 ′T as follows.

N = C 1.17
C3 ,
N3 =  D3 1.18
2
PπQR
The N3 ′T are the spectral amplitudes of the spectral components N3 e
A(
@ .

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Example 1: Find the Fourier series for the periodic sequence of impulses

shown in Fig.5

Figure 5.A periodic train of impulses

Solution: Using Eqs (1.8-1.18)

W =0 [
Not that:
 = U = V
0 XTYℎH
(@
W A
W
 = * U> =
 ,(@A 1

(@
2W A
278 2W
3 = * Ucos > =
 ,(@A  1

(@A
2W  278
;3 = * Usin > = 0
 ,(@A 

2
C =  =
1
2W
C3 = E3  + ;3  = ,D = 0
 3
1
N = N3 =
1

W 2W 278

 = W 2 δt − k1  = + 2 cos
∞ ∞

1 1 
^9,∞ 39:

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PπQR
= ∑∞
39,∞ e
_ A(
@
`a

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

--------------------

Example 2: Find the Fourier series for the periodic train of pulses of

amplitude A and duration τ shown in Fig.6.

Figure 6 A periodic train of pulses of duration τ

Solution: Similarly using Eqs(1.8-1.18)

; −eA ≤  ≤ −eA
2 2[
Note that
 = c0 XT

(@
1 A
e
C =  = N = *
> =
 ,(@A 

(@A
2  278
3 = C3 = 2N3 = *
cos >
 ,(@A 

87eA 
2e sin  
= 87e
 A 

And ;3 = 0, D3 = 0

Thus,

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Aτ 2e sin 87eA  278

gh = + 2 87e cos
∞

Tj  A 
39: 

Aτ sin 87eA  PπQR

= 2 e
∞
 A(
Tj 87eA @

39,∞  

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

--------------------

The Sampling Function: A function frequently encountered in spectral

analysis is the sampling function Sl x defined by
Tq8p
no p = 1.19
p

A closely related function is sinc x defined by

Tq87p
Tq8K p = 1.20
7p

2.3 Fourier Transform

Like periodic signals, aperiodic signals also can be represented in the frequency

domain. However, unlike the discrete spectrum of the periodic case, we have a

continuous spectrum for the aperiodic case; that is, the frequency components

constituting a given signal x (t) lie in a continuous range (or ranges), and quite often

this range could be (−∞, ∞).

As we have seen, the periodic waveform may be expressed as a sum of spectral

components. These components have finite amplitudes and are separated by finite

frequency intervalsG1 = 1A . The normalized power of the waveform is finite, as is

1

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also the normalized energy of the signal in an interval 1 of the waveform. Thus,

say, in Fig 6 the pulse centered around t=0 remains in place, but all other pulses

move outward away from t=0 as 1 ⟶ ∞ .Then eventually we would be left with a

single-pulse nonperiodic waveform.

As 1 ⟶ ∞, the spacing b/n spectral components becomes infinitesimal. The

frequency of spectral components which in the Fourier series was a discontinuous

variable with a one-to-one correspondence with the integers becomes instead a

continuous variable. The normalized energy of the nonperiodic waveform remains

finite, but, since the waveform is not repeated, its normalized power becomes

infinitesimal. The spectral amplitudes similarly become infinitesimal.

The Fourier series for the period waveform

 = 2 N3  PπQsaR 1.21

∞

39,∞

Becomes

 = * NG tu >G 1.22

∞

,∞

The finite spectral amplitudes N3 are analogous to the infinitesimal amplitudes

v(f)df. The quantity v(f) is called amplitude spectral density or more generally the

Fourier transform of v(t).

The Fourier transform is given by

vw = * xyz,{|}wy ~y 1.23

∞

,∞

Is correspondence N3 , which is given by

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ƒ
€ A|
x = * xyz,{|}w‚ y ~y 1.24
‚ ,ƒA
|

Example 3: If
 = cos 1 , find V(f).

Solution: The Fourier transform v(f) is found using Eq(----)

G = * N ,tu >

∞

,∞

= * cos 1  ,tu >

∞

,∞

1 ∞ ,tu,u 1 ∞ ,tu„u
= *  a > + *  a >
2 ,∞ 2 ,∞
Note that: UG =  ,tu >
∞
,∞

€ €
xw = †‡w − w‚ ˆ + †‡w + w‚ ˆ
| |

Example 4: A signal m(t) is multiplied by a sinusoidal waveform of frequency

G‰ . The product signal is
 = ŠKMT27G‰ . If the Fourier transform of m(t) is

M(f), that is,

‹G = * Š ,tu >

∞

,∞

Find the Fourier transform of v(t).

ŠKMT27G‰  =  Š tuŒ. + Š ,tuŒ. then the Fourier

: :
Solution; 

transform v(f) is given by

1 ∞ 1 ∞

G = * Š ,tu,uŒ > + * Š ,tu„uŒ >
2 ,∞ 2 ,∞
€ €
vw = w + wŽ  + w − wŽ 
| |
The relationship of the transform M(f) of m(t) to the transform v(f) of

m(t) KMT27G‰  is illustrated in Fig 7a. In Fig 7b we see the spectral pattern of M(f)

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replaced by two patterns of the same form. One is shifted to the right and one to

the left, each by an amountG‰ . Further, the amplitudes of each of these two

spectral patterns is one-half the amplitude of the spectral pattern M(f).

Figure 7 (a) The amplitude spectrum of a waveform with no spectral component

beyond w .

(b) The amplitude spectrum of the waveform in (a) multiplied by KMT27G‰ 

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