0

(Biology)
Study on Cell: It’s Structure and Functions
-By Vimal Kumar

University of
Delhi

CELL: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS

Biology is the study of living organisms. The detailed description of their form
and appearance only brought out their diversity. It is the cell theory that emphasised the
unity underlying this diversity of forms, i.e., the cellular organisation of all life forms. A
description of cell structure and cell growth by division is given in the chapters
comprising this unit. Cell theory also created a sense of mystery around living
phenomena, i.e., physiological and behavioural processes. This mystery was the
requirement of integrity of cellular organisation for living phenomena to be demonstrated
or observed. In studying and understanding the physiological and behavioural processes,
one can take a physico-chemical approach and use cell-free systems to investigate. This
approach enables us to describe the various processes in molecular terms. The approach
is established by analysis of living tissues for elements and compounds. It will tell us
what types of organic compounds are present in living organisms. In the next stage, one
can ask the question: What are these compounds doing inside a cell? And, in what way
do they carry out gross physiological processes like digestion, excretion, memory,
defense, recognition, etc. In other words, we answer the question, what is the molecular
basis of all physiological processes? It can also explain the abnormal processes that occur
during any diseased condition.
 0

CELL IS UNIT OF LIFE

When you look around, you see both living and non-living things. You must have
wondered and asked yourself – ‘what is it that makes an organism living, or what is it that
an inanimate thing does not have which a living thing has’ ? The answer to this is the
presence of the basic unit of life – the cell in all living organisms. All organisms are
composed of cells. Some are composed of a single cell and are called unicellular
organisms while others, like us, composed of many cells, are called multicellular
organisms.

WHAT IS A CELL?
Unicellular organisms are capable of (i) independent existence and (ii) performing the
essential functions of life. Anything less than a complete structure of a cell does not
ensure independent living. Hence, cell is the fundamental structural and functional unit of
all living organisms. Anton Von Leeuwenhoek first saw and described a live cell. Robert
Brown later discovered the nucleus. The invention of the microscope and its
improvement leading to the electron microscope revealed all the structural details of the
cell

CELL THEORY
In 1838, Matthias Schleiden, a German botanist, examined a large number of plants
and observed that all plants are composed of different kinds of cells which form the
tissues of the plant. At about the same time, Theodore Schwann (1839), a British
Zoologist, studied different types of animal cells and reported that cells had a thin outer
layer which is today known as the ‘plasma membrane’. He also concluded, based on his
studies on plant tissues, that the presence of cell wall is a unique character of the plant
cells. Based on this, Schwann proposed the hypothesis that the bodies of animals and
plants are composed of cells and products of cells. Schleiden and Schwann together
formulated the cell theory. This theory however, did not explain as to how new cells were
formed. Rudolf Virchow (1855) first explained that cells divided and new cells are
formed from pre-existing cells (Omnis cellula-e cellula). He modified the hypothesis of
Schleiden and Schwann to give the cell theory a final shape. Cell theory as understood
today is: (i) all living organisms are composed of cells and products of cells. (ii) all cells
arise from pre-existing cells.
 0

AN OVERVIEW OF CELL
You have earlier observed cells in an onion peel and/or human cheek cells under the
microscope. Let us recollect their structure. The onion cell which is a typical plant cell,
has a distinct cell wall as its outer boundary and just within it is the cell membrane. The
cells of the human cheek have an outer membrane as the delimiting structure of the cell.
Inside each cell is a dense membrane bound structure called nucleus. This nucleus
contains the chromosomes which in turn contain the genetic material, DNA. Cells that
have membrane bound nuclei are called eukaryotic whereas cells that lack a membrane
bound nucleus are prokaryotic. In both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, a semi-fluid
matrix called cytoplasm occupies the volume of the cell. The cytoplasm is the main arena
of cellular activities in both the plant and animal cells. Various chemical reactions occur
in it to keep the cell in the ‘living state’. Besides the nucleus, the eukaryotic cells have
other membrane bound distinct structures called organelles like the endoplasmic
reticulum (ER), the golgi complex, lysosomes, mitochondria, microbodies and vacuoles.
The prokaryotic cells lack such membrane bound organelles. Ribosomes are non-
membrane bound organelles found in all cells – both eukaryotic as well as prokaryotic.
Within the cell, ribosomes are found not only in the cytoplasm but also within the two
organelles – chloroplasts (in plants) and mitochondria and on rough ER. Animal cells
contain another non-membrane bound organelle called centrosome which helps in cell
division.
 0

PROKARYOTIC CELLS
The prokaryotic cells are represented by bacteria, blue-green algae, mycoplasma and
PPLO (Pleuro Pneumonia Like Organisms). They are generally smaller and multiply
more rapidly than the eukaryotic cells. They may vary greatly in shape and size. The four
basic shapes of bacteria are bacillus (rod like), coccus (spherical), vibrio (comma shaped)
and spirillum (spiral). The organisation of the prokaryotic cell is fundamentally similar
even though prokaryotes exhibit a wide variety of shapes and functions. All prokaryotes
have a cell wall surrounding the cell membrane except in mycoplasma. The fluid matrix
filling the cell is the cytoplasm. There is no well-defined nucleus. The genetic material is
basically naked, not enveloped by a nuclear membrane. In addition to the genomic DNA
(the single chromosome/circular DNA), many bacteria have small circular DNA outside
the genomic DNA. These smaller DNA are called plasmids. The plasmid DNA confers
certain unique phenotypic characters to such bacteria. One such character is resistance to
antibiotics. In higher classes you will learn that this plasmid DNA is used to monitor
bacterial transformation with foreign DNA. Nuclear membrane is found in eukaryotes.
No organelles, like the ones in eukaryotes, are found in prokaryotic cells except for
ribosomes. Prokaryotes have something unique in the form of inclusions. A specialised
differentiated form of cell membrane called mesosome is the characteristic of
prokaryotes. They are essentially infoldings of cell membrane.

Ribosomes and Inclusion Bodies

In prokaryotes, ribosomes are associated with the plasma membrane of the cell. They are
about 15 nm by 20 nm in size and are made of two subunits - 50S and 30S units which
when present together form 70S prokaryotic ribosomes. Ribosomes are the site of protein
synthesis. Several ribosomes may attach to a single mRNA and form a chain called
polyribosomes or polysome. The ribosomes of a polysome translate the mRNA into
proteins. Inclusion bodies: Reserve material in prokaryotic cells are stored in the
cytoplasm in the form of inclusion bodies. These are not bound by any membrane system
and lie free in the cytoplasm, e.g., phosphate granules, cyanophycean granules and
glycogen granules. Gas vacuoles are found in blue green and purple and green
photosynthetic bacteria.

EUKARYOTIC CELLS
 0

The eukaryotes include all the protists, plants, animals and fungi. In eukaryotic cells there
is an extensive compartmentalization of cytoplasm through the presence of membrane
bound organelles. Eukaryotic cells possess an organised nucleus with a nuclear envelope.
In addition, eukaryotic cells have a variety of complex locomotory and cytoskeletal
structures. Their genetic material is organised into chromosomes. All eukaryotic cells are
not identical. Plant and animal cells are different as the former possess cell walls, plastids
and a large central vacuole which are absent in animal cells. On the other hand, animal
cells have centrioles which are absent in almost all plant cells.

Cell Membrane
The detailed structure of the membrane was studied only after the advent of the electron
microscope in the 1950s. Meanwhile, chemical studies on the cell membrane, especially in
human red blood cells (RBCs), enabled the scientists to deduce the possible structure of plasma
membrane. These studies showed that the cell membrane is mainly composed of lipids and
proteins. The major lipids are phospholipids that are arranged in a bilayer. Also, the lipids are
arranged within the membrane with the polar head towards the outer sides and the hydrophobic
tails towards the inner part. This ensures that the nonpolar tail of saturated hydrocarbons is
protected from the aqueous environment. In addition to phospholipids membrane also contains
cholesterol. Later, biochemical investigation clearly revealed that the cell membranes also
possess protein and carbohydrate. The ratio of protein and lipid varies considerably in different
cell types. In human beings, the membrane of the erythrocyte has approximately 52 per cent
protein and 40 per cent lipids. Depending on the ease of extraction, membrane proteins can be
classified as integral and peripheral. Peripheral proteins lie on the surface of membrane while the
integral proteins are partially or totally buried in the membrane.
An improved model of the structure of cell membrane was proposed by Singer and Nicolson
(1972) widely accepted as fluid mosaic model. According to this, the quasi-fluid nature of lipid
enables lateral movement of proteins within the overall bilayer. This ability to move within the
membrane is measured as its fluidity. The fluid nature of the membrane is also important from
the point of view of functions like cell growth, formation of intercellular junctions, secretion,
endocytosis, cell division etc. One of the most important functions of the plasma membrane is
the transport of the molecules across it. The membrane is selectively permeable to some
molecules present on either side of it. Many molecules can move briefly across the membrane
without any requirement of energy and this is called the passive transport. Neutral solutes may
move across the membrane by the process of simple diffusion along the concentration gradient,
i.e., from higher concentration to the lower. Water may also move across this membrane from
higher to lower concentration. Movement of water by diffusion is called osmosis. As the polar
molecules cannot pass through the nonpolar lipid bilayer, they require a carrier protein of the
 0

membrane to facilitate their transport across the membrane. A few ions or molecules are
transported across the membrane against their concentration gradient, i.e., from lower to the
higher concentration. Such a transport is an energy dependent process, in which ATP is utilized
and is called active transport, e.g., Na+/K+ Pump.

Cell Wall
As you may recall, a non-living rigid structure called the cell wall forms an outer covering for
the plasma membrane of fungi and plants. Cell wall not only gives shape to the cell and protects
the cell from mechanical damage and infection, it also helps in cell-to-cell interaction and
provides barrier to undesirable macromolecules. Algae have cell wall, made of cellulose,
galactans, mannans and minerals like calcium carbonate, while in other plants it consists of
cellulose, hemicellulose, pectins and proteins. The cell wall of a young plant cell, the primary
wall is capable of growth, which gradually diminishes as the cell matures and the secondary wall
is formed on the inner (towards membrane) side of the cell. The middle lamella is a layer mainly
of calcium pectate which holds or glues the different neighbouring cells together. The cell wall
and middle lamellae may be traversed by plasmodesmata which connect the cytoplasm of
neighbouring cells.
 0

Endomembrane System
While each of the membranous organelles is distinct in terms of its structure and function, many
of these are considered together as an endomembrane system because their functions are
coordinated. The endomembrane system include endoplasmic reticulum (ER), golgi complex,
lysosomes and vacuoles. Since the functions of the mitochondria, chloroplast and peroxisomes
are not coordinated with the above components, these are not considered as part of the
endomembrane system.

The Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

Electron microscopic studies of eukaryotic cells reveal the presence of a network or reticulum of
tiny tubular structures scattered in the cytoplasm that is called the endoplasmic reticulum (ER).
Hence, ER divides the intracellular space into two distinct compartments, i.e., luminal (inside
ER) and extra luminal (cytoplasm) compartments. The ER often shows ribosomes attached to
their outer surface. The endoplasmic reticulum bearing ribosomes on their surface is called rough
endoplasmic reticulum (RER). In the absence of ribosomes they appear smooth and are called
smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER). RER is frequently observed in the cells actively involved
in protein synthesis and secretion. They are extensive and continuous with the outer membrane
of the nucleus. The smooth endoplasmic reticulum is the major site for synthesis of lipid. In
animal cells lipid-like steroidal hormones are synthesized in SER.

Golgi apparatus
Camillo Golgi (1898) first observed densely stained reticular structures near the nucleus. These
were later named Golgi bodies after him. They consist of many flat, disc-shaped sacs or cisternae
of 0.5µm to 1.0µm diameter (Figure 8.6). These are stacked parallel to each other. Varied
number of cisternae are present in a Golgi complex. The Golgi cisternae are concentrically
arranged near the nucleus with distinct convex cis or the forming face and concave trans or the
maturing face. The cis and the trans faces of the organelle are entirely different, but
interconnected. The golgi apparatus principally performs the function of packaging materials, to
be delivered either to the intra-cellular targets or secreted outside the cell. Materials to be
packaged in the form of vesicles from the ER fuse with the cis face of the golgi apparatus and
move towards the maturing face. This explains, why the golgi apparatus remains in close
association with the endoplasmic reticulum. Several proteins synthesised by ribosomes on the
endoplasmic reticulum are modified in the cisternae of the golgi apparatus before they are
released from its trans face. Golgi apparatus is the important site of formation of glycoproteins
and glycolipids.

Lysosomes
 0

These are membrane bound vesicular structures formed by the process of packaging in the golgi
apparatus. The isolated lysosomal vesicles have been found to be very rich in almost all types of
hydrolytic enzymes (hydrolases – lipases, proteases, carbohydrases) optimally active at the
acidic pH. These enzymes are capable of digesting carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and nucleic
acids.

Vacuoles
The vacuole is the membrane-bound space found in the cytoplasm. It contains water, sap,
excretory product and other materials not useful for the cell. The vacuole is bound by a single
membrane called tonoplast. In plant cells the vacuoles can occupy up to 90 per cent of the
volume of the cell. In plants, the tonoplast facilitates the transport of a few ions and other
materials against concentration gradients into the vacuole, hence their concentration is
significantly higher in the vacuole than in the cytoplasm. In Amoeba the contractile vacuole is
important for osmoregulation and excretion. In many cells, as in protists, food vacuoles are
formed by engulfing the food particles.

Mitochondria
Mitochondria (sing.: mitochondrion), unless specifically stained, are not easily visible under the
microscope. The number of mitochondria per cell is variable depending on the physiological
activity of the cells. In terms of shape and size also, considerable degree of variability is
observed. Typically it is sausage-shaped or cylindrical having a diameter of 0.2-1.0µm (average
0.5µm) and length 1.0-4.1µm. Each mitochondrion is a double membrane-bound structure with
the outer membrane and the inner membrane dividing its lumen distinctly into two aqueous
compartments, i.e., the outer compartment and the inner compartment. The inner compartment is
filled with a dense homogeneous substance called the matrix. The outer membrane forms the
continuous limiting boundary of the organelle. The inner membrane forms several infoldings
called the cristae (sing.: crista) towards the matrix. The cristae increase the surface area. The two
membranes have their own specific enzymes associated with the mitochondrial function.
Mitochondria are the sites of aerobic respiration. They produce cellular energy in the form of
ATP, hence they are called ‘power houses’ of the cell. The matrix also possesses single circular
DNA molecule, a few RNA molecules, ribosomes (70S) and the components required for the
synthesis of proteins. The mitochondria divide by fission.

Plastids
Plastids are found in all plant cells and in euglenoides. These are easily observed under the
microscope as they are large. They bear some specific pigments, thus imparting specific colours
to the plants. Based on the type of pigments plastids can be classified into chloroplasts,
chromoplasts and leucoplasts. The chloroplasts contain chlorophyll and carotenoid pigments
 0

which are responsible for trapping light energy essential for photosynthesis. In the chromoplasts
fat soluble carotenoid pigments like carotene, xanthophylls and others are present. This gives the
part of the plant a yellow, orange or red colour. The leucoplasts are the colourless plastids of
varied shapes and sizes with stored nutrients: Amyloplasts store carbohydrates (starch), e.g.,
potato; elaioplasts store oils and fats whereas the aleuroplasts store proteins. Majority of the
chloroplasts of the green plants are found in the mesophyll cells of the leaves. These are lens-
shaped, oval, spherical, discoid or even ribbon-like organelles having variable length (5-10µm)
and width (2-4µm). Their number varies from 1 per cell of the Chlamydomonas, a green alga to
20-40 per cell in the mesophyll. Like mitochondria, the chloroplasts are also double membrane
bound. Of the two, the inner chloroplast membrane is relatively less permeable. The space
limited by the inner membrane of the chloroplast is called the stroma. Several organised flattened
membranous sacs called the thylakoids, are present in the stroma. Thylakoids are arranged in
stacks like the piles of coins called grana (singular: granum) or the intergranal thylakoids. In
addition, there are flat membranous tubules called the stroma lamellae connecting the thylakoids
of the different grana. The membrane of the thylakoids enclose a space called a lumen. The
stroma of the chloroplast contains enzymes required for the synthesis of carbohydrates and
proteins. It also contains small, doublestranded circular DNA molecules and ribosomes.
Chlorophyll pigments are present in the thylakoids. The ribosomes of the chloroplasts are smaller
(70S) than the cytoplasmic ribosomes (80S).
 01

Ribosomes
Ribosomes are the granular structures first observed under the electron microscope as dense
particles by George Palade (1953). They are composed of ribonucleic acid (RNA) and proteins
and are not surrounded by any membrane. The eukaryotic ribosomes are 80S while the
prokaryotic ribosomes are 70S. Each ribosome has two subunits, larger and smaller subunits. The
two subunits of 80S ribosomes are 60S and 40S while that of 70S ribosomes are 50S and 30S.
Here ‘S’ (Svedberg’s Unit) stands for the sedimentation coefficient; it is indirectly a measure of
density and size. Both 70S and 80S ribosomes are composed of two subunits.
Cytoskeleton
An elaborate network of filamentous proteinaceous structures consisting of microtubules,
microfilaments and intermediate filaments present in the cytoplasm is collectively referred to as
the cytoskeleton. The cytoskeleton in a cell are involved in many functions such as mechanical
support, motility, maintenance of the shape of the cell.
Centrosome and Centrioles
Centrosome is an organelle usually containing two cylindrical structures called centrioles. They
are surrounded by amorphous pericentriolar materials. Both the centrioles in a centrosome lie
perpendicular to each other in which each has an organisation like the cartwheel. They are made
up of nine evenly spaced peripheral fibrils of tubulin protein. Each of the peripheral fibril is a
triplet. The adjacent triplets are also linked. The central part of the proximal region of the
centriole is also proteinaceous and called the hub, which relates to tubules of the peripheral
triplets by radial spokes made of protein. The centrioles form the basal body of cilia or flagella,
and spindle fibres that give rise to spindle apparatus during cell division in animal cells.

Nucleus
Nucleus as a cell organelle was first described by Robert Brown as early as 1831. Later the
material of the nucleus stained by the basic dyes was given the name chromatin by Flemming.
The interphase nucleus (nucleus of a cell when it is not dividing) has highly extended and
elaborate nucleoprotein fibres called chromatin, nuclear matrix and one or more spherical bodies
called nucleoli (sing.: nucleolus). Electron microscopy has revealed that the nuclear envelope,
which consists of two parallel membranes with a space between (10 to 50 nm) called the
perinuclear space, forms a barrier between the materials present inside the nucleus and that of the
cytoplasm. The outer membrane usually remains continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum and
bears ribosomes on it. At a number of places the nuclear envelope is interrupted by minute pores,
which are formed by the fusion of its two membranes. These nuclear pores are the passages
through which movement of RNA and protein molecules takes place in both directions between
 01

the nucleus and the cytoplasm. Normally, there is only one nucleus per cell, variations in the
number of nuclei are also frequently observed. The nuclear matrix or the nucleoplasm contains
nucleolus and chromatin. The nucleoli are spherical structures present in the nucleoplasm. The
content of nucleolus is continuous with the rest of the nucleoplasm as it is not a membrane bound
structure. It is a site for active ribosomal RNA synthesis. Larger and more numerous nucleoli are
present in cells actively carrying out protein synthesis. You may recall that the interphase
nucleus has a loose and indistinct network of nucleoprotein fibres called chromatin. But during
different stages of cell division, cells show structured chromosomes in place of the nucleus.
Chromatin contains DNA and some basic proteins called histones, some non-histone proteins
and also RNA. A single human cell has approximately two metre long thread of DNA distributed
among its forty six (twenty three pairs) chromosomes. Every chromosome (visible only in
dividing cells) essentially has a primary constriction or the centromere on the sides of which disc
shaped structures called kinetochores are present. Centromere holds two chromatids of a
chromosome. Based on the position of the centromere, the chromosomes can be classified into
four types. The metacentric chromosome has middle centromere forming two equal arms of the
chromosome. The sub-metacentric chromosome has centromere slightly away from the middle of
the chromosome resulting into one shorter arm and one longer arm. In case of acrocentric
chromosome the centromere is situated close to its end forming one extremely short and one very
long arm, whereas the telocentric chromosome has a terminal centromere.
 01

SUMMARY
All organisms are made of cells or aggregates of cells. Cells vary in their shape, size and
activities/functions. Based on the presence or absence of a membrane bound nucleus and other
organelles, cells and hence organisms can be named as eukaryotic or prokaryotic. A typical
eukaryotic cell consists of a cell membrane, nucleus and cytoplasm. Plant cells have a cell wall
outside the cell membrane. The plasma membrane is selectively permeable and facilitates
transport of several molecules. The endomembrane system includes ER, golgi complex,
lysosomes and vacuoles. All the cell organelles perform different but specific functions.
Centrosome and centriole form the basal body of cilia and flagella that facilitate locomotion. In
animal cells, centrioles also form spindle apparatus during cell division. Nucleus contains
nucleoli and chromatin network. It not only controls the activities of organelles but also plays a
major role in heredity. Endoplasmic reticulum contains tubules or cisternae. They are of two
types: rough and smooth. ER helps in the transport of substances, synthesis of proteins,
lipoproteins and glycogen. The golgi body is a membranous organelle composed of flattened
sacs. The secretions of cells are packed in them and transported from the cell. Lysosomes are
single membrane structures containing enzymes for digestion of all types of macromolecules.
Ribosomes are involved in protein synthesis. These occur freely in the cytoplasm or are
associated with ER. Mitochondria help in oxidative phosphorylation and generation of adenosine
triphosphate. They are bound by double membrane; the outer membrane is smooth and inner one
folds into several cristae. Plastids are pigment containing organelles found in plant cells only. In
plant cells, chloroplasts are responsible for trapping light energy essential for photosynthesis.
The grana, in the plastid, is the site of light reactions and the stroma of dark reactions. The green
coloured plastids are chloroplasts, which contain chlorophyll, whereas the other coloured plastids
are chromoplasts, which may contain pigments like carotene and xanthophyll. The nucleus is
enclosed by nuclear envelope, a double membrane structure with nuclear pores. The inner
membrane encloses the nucleoplasm and the chromatin material. Thus, cell is the structural and
functional unit of life.