Dual Axis Solar Tracking System

ABSTRACT
Solar energy is one of the most promising renewable energy resources that recently have become broader
in current technology. This paper presents the technique how Ohm’s law and power equation applies to
generate more energy from solar photovoltaic (PV) panels. To implement automatic dual axis and a polar
single axis solar tracker system is used. It contains a locked vertical axis and a flexible horizontal axis,
which is regulated by a motor. To get the maximum power output and highest efficiency, trackers always
track the sun and change panel position accordingly. The tracker automatically changes its position after
every 2 to 3 degrees of misalignment, to prevent the power loss created by running motor continuously.
The light intensities of both sides were compared by the sensors and move the panels towards the light.
The panel continuously moves until the tracker detects the equal light falls on both sides. This project
helps to improve the solar irradiance of the panel.
 1. INTRODUCTION

Though electricity is one of the most important parts of our life in this era, approximately 1.6
billion people still living without electricity. It’s only for the high cost of power grid building
and maintenance. This vast quantity of energy deficiency can be fulfilled by the green energy
across the developing world. Photovoltaic (PV) is the most suitable energy resource, because it is
harmless. In PV power systems dual axis solar panel tracker has an important role. To maximize
the energy output, dual axis solar panel tracker used to change orientation of panel throughout
the whole day towards the sun’s path. Solar system trackers help to minimize the incidence angle
in between the solar panel and the incoming light, which maximizes the amount of electricity. To
collect solar energy from the sunlight, trackers must be angled properly. As dual- axis trackers
can move in two different directions, which help to continually face the panel in the direction of
sunlight. These trackers help to gain the highest amount solar energy from the sunlight, as these
trackers can follow the sun by both axes vertically and horizontally [1]. In this project we
develop a Microcontroller based dedicated dual axis solar panel tracker for solar PV module
based on the incremental conductance method. There are upgraded charger controllers which
maintain a better match in between the solar panels and their load. The main advantage of the
charger is to utilize all the energy from the solar panels. The charge controllers cannot adapt the
changing conditions of the solar panels properly over the period of any given day, which
includes low light detects in the morning, evening and during cloud cover and also temperature
varies frequently associated with the changes in insulation. The edges of clouds initiate particular
problems because their direction changes rapidly in lighting, which may be followed by a
comparably rapid changes in temperature. The charge controllers have limited efficiency as they
cannot adapt the changing condition. That’s why larger solar panels needed to be used for a
given energy output and the cost becomes higher. Now-a-days dual axis solar panel tracker
systems are controlled by microcontroller. They automatically adjust the output, move the panel
for sunlight and also shut down for microseconds if necessary. Dual axis solar panel tracker are
now commercially manufactured by several companies, such as Array Technologies Inc.,
PureMechanic, SunAction, SmartTrak, and a few others [2], [3]. As the cost of traditional current
source is increasing day by day, people can take the advantage of green energy. Due to the more
portable devices coming out, the demand to utilize green power is ever increasing. The
advancement shown in this paper is very crucial because there is a current demand in the market
for an alternative Energy device, which can charge various types of batteries more efficiently.
The implemented charging system is not very fast, but it can provide an efficient loading and
without the need of any extra cost for the consumer. The total system can be used commercially
and for household generation. So, people can make up for the crisis of electric energy, on their
own-self. The total system, ensure the maximum efficiency with a low cost comparing other
sources and generation system. To fabricate this project two servo motors are used. These motors
are used to control prototype solar cell movement system with a mechanical assembly to move
the panel from east to west as well as the sun track maximum angle. Finally, an electronic circuit
is designed to detect the intensity of light and to control servo motors drive for the PV panel
movement.

1.1 Introduction of Embedded System:

An Embedded System is a combination of computer hardware and software, and perhaps

additional mechanical or other parts, designed to perform a specific function. A good example is
the microwave oven. Almost every household has one, and tens of millions of them are used
every day, but very few people realize that a processor and software are involved in the
preparation of their lunch or dinner.

This is in direct contrast to the personal computer in the family room. It too is comprised
of computer hardware and software and mechanical components (disk drives, for example).
However, a personal computer is not designed to perform a specific function rather; it is able to
do many different things. Many people use the term general-purpose computer to make this
distinction clear. As shipped, a general-purpose computer is a blank slate; the manufacturer does
not know what the customer will do wish it. One customer may use it for a network file server
another may use it exclusively for playing games, and a third may use it to write the next great
American novel.

Frequently, an embedded system is a component within some larger system. For

example, modern cars and trucks contain many embedded systems. One embedded system
controls the anti-lock brakes, other monitors and controls the vehicle's emissions, and a third
displays information on the dashboard. In some cases, these embedded systems are connected by
some sort of a communication network, but that is certainly not a requirement.

At the possible risk of confusing you, it is important to point out that a general-purpose
computer is itself made up of numerous embedded systems. For example, my computer consists
of a keyboard, mouse, video card, modem, hard drive, floppy drive, and sound card-each of
Which is an embedded system? Each of these devices contains a processor and software and is
designed to perform a specific function. For example, the modem is designed to send and receive
digital data over analog telephone line. That's it and all of the other devices can be summarized
in a single sentence as well.

If an embedded system is designed well, the existence of the processor and software
could be completely unnoticed by the user of the device. Such is the case for a microwave oven,
VCR, or alarm clock. In some cases, it would even be possible to build an equivalent device that
does not contain the processor and software. This could be done by replacing the combination
with a custom integrated circuit that performs the same functions in hardware. However, a lot of
flexibility is lost when a design is hard-cooled in this way. It is mush easier, and cheaper, to
change a few lines of software than to redesign a piece of custom hardware.

1.2 History and Future:

Given the definition of embedded systems earlier is this chapter; the first such systems
could not possibly have appeared before 1971. That was the year Intel introduced the world's
first microprocessor. This chip, the 4004, was designed for use in a line of business calculators
produced by the Japanese Company Busicom. In 1969, Busicom asked Intel to design a set of
custom integrated circuits-one for each of their new calculator models. The 4004 was Intel's
response rather than design custom hardware for each calculator, Intel proposed a general-
purpose circuit that could be used throughout the entire line of calculators. Intel's idea was that
the software would give each calculator its unique set of features.

The microcontroller was an overnight success, and its use increased steadily over the
next decade. Early embedded applications included unmanned space probes, computerized traffic
lights, and aircraft flight control systems. In the 1980s, embedded systems quietly rode the
waves of the microcomputer age and brought microprocessors into every part of our kitchens
(bread machines, food processors, and microwave ovens), living rooms (televisions, stereos, and
remote controls), and workplaces (fax machines, pagers, laser printers, cash registers, and credit
card readers).

It seems inevitable hat the number of embedded systems will continue to increase
rapidly. Already there are promising new embedded devices that have enormous market
potential; light switches and thermostats that can be central computer, intelligent air-bag systems
that don't inflate when children or small adults are present, pal-sized electronic organizers and
personal digital assistants (PDAs), digital cameras, and dashboard navigation systems. Clearly,
individuals who possess the skills and desire to design the next generation of embedded systems
will be in demand for quite some time.

1.3 Real Time Systems:

One subclass of embedded is worthy of an introduction at this point. As commonly

defined, a real-time system is a computer system that has timing constraints. In other words, a
real-time system is partly specified in terms of its ability to make certain calculations or
decisions in a timely manner. These important calculations are said to have deadlines for
completion. And, for all practical purposes, a missed deadline is just as bad as a wrong answer.

The issue of what if a deadline is missed is a crucial one. For example, if the real-time
system is part of an airplane's flight control system, it is possible for the lives of the passengers
and crew to be endangered by a single missed deadline. However, if instead the system is
involved in satellite communication, the damage could be limited to a single corrupt data packet.
The more severe the consequences, the more likely it will be said that the deadline is "hard" and
thus, the system is a hard real-time system. Real-time systems at the other end of this discussion
are said to have "soft" deadlines.

All of the topics and examples presented in this book are applicable to the designers of
real-time system who is more delight in his work. He must guarantee reliable operation of the
software and hardware under all the possible conditions and to the degree that human lives
depend upon three system's proper execution, engineering calculations and descriptive
paperwork.
Application Areas :Nearly 99 per cent of the processors manufactured end up in embedded
systems. The embedded system market is one of the highest growth areas as these systems are
used in very market segment- consumer electronics, office automation, industrial automation,
biomedical engineering, wireless communication,Data communication, telecommunications,
transportation, military and so on.

Consumer appliances: At home we use a number of embedded systems which include digital
camera, digital diary, DVD player, electronic toys, microwave oven, remote controls for TV and
air-conditioner, VCO player, video game consoles, video recorders etc. Today’s high-tech car
has about 20 embedded systems for transmission control, engine spark control, air-conditioning,
navigation etc. Even wristwatches are now becoming embedded systems. The palmtops are
powerful embedded systems using which we can carry out many general-purpose tasks such as
playing games and word processing.

Office automation: The office automation products using em embedded systems are copying
machine, fax machine, key telephone, modem, printer, scanner etc.

Industrial automation: Today a lot of industries use embedded systems for process control.
These include pharmaceutical, cement, sugar, oil exploration, nuclear energy, electricity
generation and transmission. The embedded systems for industrial use are designed to carry out
specific tasks such as monitoring the temperature, pressure, humidity, voltage, current etc., and
then take appropriate action based on the monitored levels to control other devices or to send
information to a centralized monitoring station. In hazardous industrial environment, where
human presence has to be avoided, robots are used, which are programmed to do specific jobs.
The robots are now becoming very powerful and carry out many interesting and complicated
tasks such as hardware assembly.

Medical electronics: Almost every medical equipment in the hospital is an embedded system.
These equipments include diagnostic aids such as ECG, EEG, blood pressure measuring devices,
X-ray scanners; equipment used in blood analysis, radiation, colonoscopy, endoscopy etc.
Developments in medical electronics have paved way for more accurate diagnosis of diseases.

Computer networking: Computer networking products such as bridges, routers, Integrated

Services Digital Networks (ISDN), Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM), X.25 and frame relay
switches are embedded systems which implement the necessary data communication protocols.
For example, a router interconnects two networks. The two networks may be running different
protocol stacks. The router’s function is to obtain the data packets from incoming pores, analyze
the packets and send them towards the destination after doing necessary protocol conversion.
Most networking equipments, other than the end systems (desktop computers) we use to access
the networks, are embedded systems.

Telecommunications: In the field of telecommunications, the embedded systems can be

categorized as subscriber terminals and network equipment. The subscriber terminals such as key
telephones, ISDN phones, terminal adapters, web cameras are embedded systems. The network
equipment includes multiplexers, multiple access systems, Packet Assemblers Dissemblers
(PADs), sate11ite modems etc. IP phone, IP gateway, IP gatekeeper etc. are the latest embedded
systems that provide very low-cost voice communication over the Internet.

Wireless technologies: Advances in mobile communications are paving way for many
interesting applications using embedded systems. The mobile phone is one of the marvels of the
last decade of the 20’h century. It is a very powerful embedded system that provides voice
communication while we are on the move. The Personal Digital Assistants and the palmtops can
now be used to access multimedia services over the Internet. Mobile communication
infrastructure such as base station controllers, mobile switching centers are also powerful
embedded systems.

Insemination:Testing and measurement are the fundamental requirements in all scientific and
engineering activities. The measuring equipment we use in laboratories to measure parameters
such as weight, temperature, pressure, humidity, voltage, current etc. are all embedded systems.
Test equipment such as oscilloscope, spectrum analyzer, logic analyzer, protocol analyzer, radio
communication test set etc. are embedded systems built around powerful processors. Thank to
miniaturization, the test and measuring equipment are now becoming portable facilitating easy
testing and measurement in the field by field-personnel.

Security: Security of persons and information has always been a major issue. We need to protect
our homes and offices; and also the information we transmit and store. Developing embedded
systems for security applications is one of the most lucrative businesses nowadays. Security
devices at homes, offices, airports etc. for authentication and verification are embedded systems.
Encryption devices are nearly 99 per cent of the processors that are manufactured end up in~
embedded systems. Embedded systems find applications in. every industrial segment- consumer
electronics, transportation, avionics, biomedical engineering, manufacturing, process control and
industrial automation, data communication, telecommunication, defense, security etc. Used to
encrypt the data/voice being transmitted on communication links such as telephone
lines.Biometric systems using fingerprint and face recognition are now being extensively used
for user authentication in banking applications as well as for access control in high security
buildings.

Finance: Financial dealing through cash and cheques are now slowly paving way for
transactions using smart cards and ATM (Automatic Teller Machine, also expanded as Any Time
Money) machines. Smart card, of the size of a credit card, has a small micro-controller and
memory; and it interacts with the smart card reader! ATM machine and acts as an electronic
wallet. Smart card technology has the capability of ushering in a cashless society. Well, the list
goes on. It is no exaggeration to say that eyes wherever you go, you can see, or at least feel, the
work of an embedded system.

1.4 Overview of Embedded System Architecture

Every embedded system consists of custom-built hardware built around a Central

Processing Unit (CPU). This hardware also contains memory chips onto which the software is
loaded. The software residing on the memory chip is also called the ‘firmware’. The embedded
system architecture can be represented as a layered architecture as shown in Fig.

The operating system runs above the hardware, and the application software runs above
the operating system. The same architecture is applicable to any computer including a desktop
computer. However, there are significant differences. It is not compulsory to have an operating
system in every embedded system.

For small appliances such as remote control units, air conditioners, toys etc., there is no
need for an operating system and you can write only the software specific to that application. For
applications involving complex processing, it is advisable to have an operating system. In such a
case, you need to integrate the application software with the operating system and then transfer
the entire software on to the memory chip. Once the software is transferred to the memory chip,
the software will continue to run fora long time you don’t need to reload new software.

Now, let us see the details of the various building blocks of the hardware of an embedded
system. As shown in Fig. the building blocks are:

 Central Processing Unit (CPU)

 Memory (Read-only Memory and Random Access Memory)
 Input Devices
 Output devices
 Communication interfaces
 Application-specific circuitry

Fig 1.1 Blocks of hardware embedded system

Central Processing Unit (CPU):

The Central Processing Unit (processor, in short) can be any of the following:
microcontroller, microprocessor or Digital Signal Processor (DSP). A micro-controller is a low-
cost processor. Its main attraction is that on the chip itself, there will be many other components
such as memory, serial communication interface, analog-to digital converter etc. So, for small
applications, a micro-controller is the best choice as the number of external components required
will be very less. On the other hand, microprocessors are more powerful, but you need to use
many external components with them. D5P is used mainly for applications in which signal
processing is involved such as audio and video processing.

Memory:

The memory is categorized as Random Access 11emory (RAM) and Read Only Memory
(ROM). The contents of the RAM will be erased if power is switched off to the chip, whereas
ROM retains the contents even if the power is switched off. So, the firmware is stored in the
ROM. When power is switched on, the processor reads the ROM; the program is program is
executed.

Input devices:

Unlike the desktops, the input devices to an embedded system have very limited
capability. There will be no keyboard or a mouse, and hence interacting with the embedded
system is no easy task. Many embedded systems will have a small keypad-you press one key to
give a specific command. A keypad may be used to input only the digits. Many embedded
systems used in process control do not have any input device foruser interaction; they take inputs
fromsensors or transducers 1’fnd produce electrical signals that are in turn fed to other systems.

Output devices:

The output devices of the embedded systems also have very limited capability. Some
embedded systems will have a few Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) to indicate the health status of
the system modules, or for visual indication of alarms. A small Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)
may also be used to display some important parameters.

Communication interfaces:

The embedded systems may need to, interact with other embedded systems at they may
have to transmit data to a desktop. To facilitate this, the embedded systems are provided with one
or a few communication interfaces such as RS232, RS422, RS485, Universal Serial Bus (USB),
IEEE 1394, Ethernet etc.
Application-specific circuitry:

Sensors, transducers, special processing and control circuitry may be required fat an
embedded system, depending on its application. This circuitry interacts with the processor to
carry out the necessary work. The entire hardware has to be given power supply either through
the 230 volts main supply or through a battery. The hardware has to design in such a way that the
power consumption is minimized.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Due to high demand of energy and limited availability of conventional energy, non-conventional
sources become more popular among researchers. A lot of research work is going on to enhance
the power efficiency of non-conventional sources and make it more reliable and beneficial.

According to T.R.Deshmukh paper deals with design and modeling of parts of the model of the
foot step power generation system using 3d modeling software creo. This process consist
number of simple setup that is installed under the walking or standing platform. Project system
works on the principle of converting the linear motion because to pressure of foot steps into
rotating motion by rack and pinion arrangement. This mechanism fails if there is any occurrence
of variable load leads to balancing type problems Power is not generated during return
movement of rack.[1]
Sasank shekhar Panda’s paper is based on crank shaft; fly wheel, and gear arrangement .This
type of footsteps power generation system are eligible to be installed in crowded places and
rural areas. Thus this is a very good technology to provide effective solution to power related
problems to affordable extent. This will be the most acceptable means of providing power to the
places that involves difficulties of transmission. Maintenance and lubrication is required time to
time.
Miss. Mathane state that Piezoelectric materials having crystalline structure. They can convert
mechanical energy in the electrical energy and vice versa. The produced electrical energy from
piezoelectric crystal is very low in the order of 2-3 volts and is stored in battery to charge
controller, since it is not possible to charge 12v battery through crystal output. To increase the
voltage, the boost converter circuit is used. Comparison between various piezo electric material
shows that PZT is superior in characteristics. Also, by comparison it was found that series-
parallel combination connection is more suitable. The weight applied on the tile and
corresponding voltage generated is studied and they are found to have linear relation. It is
especially suited for implementation in crowded areas.[3]
Jose Ananth Vino state that project using simple drive mechanism which include rack and
pinion assembly and chain drive mechanism. The conversion of the pressure or force energy in
to electrical energy. The power generation is very high but The initial cost of this system is
high. There is no need of power from the mains and these system is eco friendly. generate the
electricity. Maintenance and lubrication is required time to time. Power is not generated during
return movement of rack.
 2. BLOCK DIAGRAM OF PROJECT AND FUNCTIONING

BLOCK DIAGRAM:

POWER SUPPLY BLOCKDIAGRAM:

Step down Transformer
Bridge Rectifier Filter Regulator Output
 \

3. DESCRPTION OF COMPONENTS

3.1 Arduino.
Overview The Arduino Uno is a microcontroller board based on the ATmega328 (datasheet). It
has 14 digital input/output pins (of which 6 can be used as PWM outputs), 6 analog inputs, a 16
MHz ceramic resonator, a USB connection, a power jack, an ICSP header, and a reset button. It
contains everything needed to support the microcontroller; simply connect it to a computer with
a USB cable or power it with a AC-to-DC adapter or battery to get started. The Uno differs
from all preceding boards in that it does not use the FTDI USB-to-serial driver chip. Instead, it
features the Atmega16U2 (Atmega8U2 up to version R2) programmed as a USB-to-serial
converter. Revision 2 of the Uno board has a resistor pulling the 8U2 HWB line to ground,
making it easier to put into DFU mode. Revision 3 of the board has the following new features:
 1.0 pinout: added SDA and SCL pins that are near to the AREF pin and two other new pins
placed near to the RESET pin, the IOREF that allow the shields to adapt to the voltage provided
from the board. In future, shields will be compatible both with the board that use the AVR,
which operate with 5V and with the Arduino Due that operate with 3.3V. The second one is a
not connected pin, that is reserved for future purposes.
Stronger RESET circuit.
Atmega 16U2 replace the 8U2. "Uno" means one in Italian and is named to mark the upcoming
release of Arduino 1.0. The Uno and version 1.0 will be the reference versions of Arduino,
moving forward. The Uno is the latest in a series of USB Arduino boards, and the reference
model for the Arduino platform; for a comparison with previous versions, see the index of
Arduino boards.
Summary:

Microcontroller ATmega328

Operating Voltage 5V

Input Voltage (recommended) 7-12V

Input Voltage (limits) 6-20V

Digital I/O Pins 14 (of which 6 provide PWM output)

Analog Input Pins 6

DC Current per I/O Pin 40 mA

DC Current for 3.3V Pin 50 mA

Flash Memory 32 KB (ATmega328) of which 0.5 KB used by bootloader

SRAM 2 KB (ATmega328)

EEPROM 1 KB (ATmega328)
Clock Speed 16 MHz

Schematic & Reference Design

EAGLE files: arduino-uno-Rev3-reference-design.zip (NOTE: works with Eagle 6.0 and
newer) Schematic: arduino-uno-Rev3-schematic.pdf Note: The Arduino reference design can
use an Atmega8, 168, or 328, Current models use an ATmega328, but an Atmega8 is shown in
the schematic for reference. The pin configuration is identical on all three processors

Power

The Arduino Uno can be powered via the USB connection or with an external power supply.
The power

source is selected automatically.

External (non-USB) power can come either from an AC-to-DC adapter (wall-wart) or battery.
The

adapter can be connected by plugging a 2.1mm center-positive plug into the board's power jack.
Leads

from a battery can be inserted in the Gnd and Vin pin headers of the POWER connector.

The board can operate on an external supply of 6 to 20 volts. If supplied with less than 7V,
however,

the 5V pin may supply less than five volts and the board may be unstable. If using more than
12V, the

voltage regulator may overheat and damage the board. The recommended range is 7 to 12 volts.
The power pins are as follows:

VIN.The input voltage to the Arduino board when it's using an external power source (as

opposed to 5 volts from the USB connection or other regulated power source). You can supply

voltage through this pin, or, if supplying voltage via the power jack, access it through this pin.

5V.This pin outputs a regulated 5V from the regulator on the board. The board can be supplied

with power either from the DC power jack (7 - 12V), the USB connector (5V), or the VIN pin
of

the board (7-12V). Supplying voltage via the 5V or 3.3V pins bypasses the regulator, and can

damage your board. We don't advise it.

3V3. A 3.3 volt supply generated by the on-board regulator. Maximum current draw is 50 mA.
GND. Ground pins.
Memory:
The ATmega328 has 32 KB (with 0.5 KB used for the bootloader). It also has 2 KB of SRAM
and 1 KB of EEPROM (which can be read and written with the EEPROM library).
Input and Output:
Each of the 14 digital pins on the Uno can be used as an input or output, using pinMode(),
digitalWrite(), and digitalRead() functions. They operate at 5 volts. Each pin can provide or
receive a maximum of 40 mA and has an internal pull-up resistor (disconnected by default) of
20-50 kOhms. In addition, some pins have specialized functions:
 Serial: 0 (RX) and 1 (TX). Used to receive (RX) and transmit (TX) TTL serial data. These
pins are connected to the corresponding pins of the ATmega8U2 USB-to-TTL Serial chip.
 External Interrupts: 2 and 3. These pins can be configured to trigger an interrupt on a low
value, a rising or falling edge, or a change in value. See the attachInterrupt() function for details.
 PWM: 3, 5, 6, 9, 10, and 11. Provide 8-bit PWM output with the analogWrite() function.
 SPI: 10 (SS), 11 (MOSI), 12 (MISO), 13 (SCK). These pins support SPI communication using
the SPI library.
LED: 13. There is a built-in LED connected to digital pin 13. When the pin is HIGH value, the
LED is on, when the pin is LOW, it's off. The Uno has 6 analog inputs, labeled A0 through A5,
each of which provide 10 bits of resolution (i.e. 1024 different values). By default they measure
from ground to 5 volts, though is it possible to change the upper end of their range using the
AREF pin and the analogReference() function. Additionally, some pins have specialized
functionality:
 TWI: A4 or SDA pin and A5 or SCL pin. Support TWI communication using the Wire
library. There are a couple of other pins on the board:
AREF.Reference voltage for the analog inputs. Used with analogReference().
 Reset. Bring this line LOW to reset the microcontroller. Typically used to add a reset button to
shields which block the one on the board. See also the mapping between Arduino pins and
ATmega328 ports. The mapping for the Atmega8, 168, and 328 is identical.
Communication:
The Arduino Uno has a number of facilities for communicating with a computer, another
Arduino, or other microcontrollers. The ATmega328 provides UART TTL (5V) serial
communication, which is available on digital pins 0 (RX) and 1 (TX). An ATmega16U2 on the
board channels this serial communication over USB and appears as a virtual com port to
software on the computer. The '16U2 firmware uses the standard USB COM drivers, and no
external driver is needed. However, on Windows, a .inf file is required. The Arduino software
includes a serial monitor which allows simple textual data to be sent to and from the Arduino
board. The RX and TX LEDs on the board will flash when data is being transmitted via the
USB-to-serial chip and USB connection to the computer (but not for serial communication on
pins 0 and 1). A SoftwareSerial library allows for serial communication on any of the Uno's
digital pins. The ATmega328 also supports I2C (TWI) and SPI communication. The Arduino
software includes a Wire library to simplify use of the I2C bus; see the documentation for
details. For SPI communication, use the SPI library.
3.2 POWER SUPPLY
The input to the circuit is applied from the regulated power supply. The a.c. input i.e., 230V
from the mains supply is step down by the transformer to 12V and is fed to a rectifier. The
output obtained from the rectifier is a pulsating d.c voltage. So in order to get a pure d.c voltage,
the output voltage from the rectifier is fed to a filter to remove any a.c components present even
after rectification. Now, this voltage is given to a voltage regulator to obtain a pure constant dc
voltage.

Fig 3.5 Block Diagram of Power supply

Fig 3.6 Circuit Diagram of Power supply

3.2.1 Step down Transformer:
Usually, DC voltages are required to operate various electronic equipment and these
voltages are 5V, 9V or 12V. But these voltages cannot be obtained directly. Thus the a.c input
available at the mains supply i.e., 230V is to be brought down to the required voltage level. This
is done by a transformer. Thus, a step down transformer is employed to decrease the voltage to
a required level.

3.2.2 Rectifier:
The output from the transformer is fed to the rectifier. It converts A.C. into pulsating D.C. The
rectifier may be a half wave or a full wave rectifier. In this project, a bridge rectifier is used
because of its merits like good stability and full wave rectification.
3.2.3 Filter:
Capacitive filter is used in this project. It removes the ripples from the output of rectifier and
smoothens the D.C. Output received from this filter is constant until the mains voltage and
load is maintained constant. However, if either of the two is varied, D.C. voltage received at this
point changes. Therefore a regulator is applied at the output stage.

3.2.4 Voltage Regulator:

As the name itself implies, it regulates the input applied to it. A voltage regulator is an electrical
regulator designed to automatically maintain a constant voltage level. In this project, power
supply of 5V and 12V are required. In order to obtain these voltage levels, 7805 and 7812
voltage regulators are to be used. The first number 78 represents positive supply and the
numbers 05, 12 represent the required output voltage levels.
Features:

• Output Current up to 1A.

• Output Voltages of 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15, 18, 24V.

• Thermal Overload Protection. • Short Circuit Protection.

• Output Transistor Safe Operating Area Protection.

3.3 LCD/DISPLAY
Liquid Crystal Display also called as LCD is very helpful in providing user interface as well as
for debugging purpose. The most commonly used Character based LCDs are based on Hitachi's
HD44780 controller or other which are compatible with HD44580. The most commonly used
LCDs found in the market today are 1 Line, 2 Line or 4 Line LCDs which have only 1
controller and support at most of 80 characters, whereas LCDs supporting more than 80
characters make use of 2 HD44780 controllers

Pin Description:

Fig 3.13 Pin Diagram of LCD

Pin No. Name Description

1 VSS Power supply (GND)

2 VCC Power supply (+5V)

3 VEE Contrast adjust

0 = Instruction input
4 RS
1 = Data input

0 = Write to LCD module

5 R/W
1 = Read from LCD module

6 EN Enable signal
7 D0 Data bus line 0 (LSB)

8 D1 Data bus line 1

9 D2 Data bus line 2

10 D3 Data bus line 3

11 D4 Data bus line 4

12 D5 Data bus line 5

13 D6 Data bus line 6

14 D7 Data bus line 7 (MSB)

15 LED+ Back Light VCC

16 LED- Back Light GND

Table 3.5 Pin Description of LCD

Table3.6 Command Operation of LCD

Although looking at the table you can make your own commands and test them. Below is a brief
list of useful commands which are used frequently while working on the LCD.
No. Instruction Hex Decimal

1 Function Set: 8-bit, 1 Line, 5x7 Dots 0x30 48

2 Function Set: 8-bit, 2 Line, 5x7 Dots 0x38 56

3 Function Set: 4-bit, 1 Line, 5x7 Dots 0x20 32

4 Function Set: 4-bit, 2 Line, 5x7 Dots 0x28 40

5 Entry Mode 0x06 6

Display off Cursor off

6 (clearing display without clearing DDRAM 0x08 8
content)

7 Display on Cursor on 0x0E 14

8 Display on Cursor off 0x0C 12

9 Display on Cursor blinking 0x0F 15

10 Shift entire display left 0x18 24

12 Shift entire display right 0x1C 30

13 Move cursor left by one character 0x10 16

14 Move cursor right by one character 0x14 20

15 Clear Display (also clear DDRAM content) 0x01 1

Set DDRAM address or cursor position on

16 0x80+add 128+add
display

Set CGRAM address or set pointer to

17 0x40+add 64+add
CGRAM location

Table 3.7 Command List of LCD

Sending Commands to LCD

To send commands we simply need to select the command register. Everything is same as we
have done in the initialization routine. But we will summarize the common steps and put them
in a single subroutine. Following are the steps:

 move data to LCD port

 select command register
 select write operation
 send enable signal
 wait for LCD to process the command
 Sending Data to LCD
 To send data move data to LCD port
 select data register
select write operation.

3.4 SOLAR POWER

Solar power is the conversion of energy from sunlight into electricity, either directly
using photovoltaics (PV), indirectly using concentrated solar power, or a combination.
Concentrated solar power systems use lenses or mirrors and solar tracking systems to focus a
large area of sunlight into a small beam. Photovoltaic cells convert light into an electric
current using the photovoltaic effect.[1]

PHOTOVOLTAIC ENERGY SYSTEM

PV CELL

Photovoltaic cell is the building block of the PV system and semiconductor material such as
silicon and germanium are the building block of PV cell. Silicon is used for photovoltaic cell due
to its advantages over germanium. When photons hit the surface of solar cell, the electrons and
holes are generated by breaking the covalent bond inside the atom of semiconductor material and
in response electric field is generated by creating positive and negative terminals. When these
terminals are connected by a conductor an electric current will start flowing. This electricity is
used to power a load.

PV MODULE

A single cell generate very low voltage (around 0.4), so more than one PV cells can be
connected either in serial or in parallel or as a grid (both serial and parallel) to form a PV module
as shown in fig.3.2. When we need higher voltage, we connect PV cell in series and if load
demand is high current then we connect PV cell in parallel. Usually there are 36 or 76 cells in
general PV modules. Module we are using having 54 cells. The front side of the module is
transparent usually buildup of low-iron and transparent glass material, and the PV cell is
encapsulated. The efficiency of a module is not as good as PV cell, because the glass cover and
frame reflects some amount of the incoming radiation.

PV ARRAY

A photovoltaic array is simply an interconnection of several PV modules in serial and/or parallel.

The power generated by individual modules may not be sufficient to meet the requirement of
trading applications, so the modules are secured in a grid form or as an array to gratify the load
demand. In an array, the modules are connected like as that of cells connected in a module.
While making a PV array, generally the modules are initially connected in serial manner to
obtain the desired voltage, and then strings so obtained are connected in parallel in order to
produce more current based on the requirement.
Fig . Photovoltaic system

WORKING OF PV CELL

The basic theory involved in working of an individual PV cell is the Photoelectric effect
according to which, when a photon particle hits a PV cell, after receiving energy from sunbeam
the electrons of the semiconductor get excited and hop to the conduction band from the valence
band and become free to move. Movement of electrons create positive and negative terminal and
also create potential difference across these two terminals. When an external circuit is connected
between these terminals an electric current start flowing through the circuit.

MODELING OF PV CELL

Figure below shows the equivalent circuit of solar cell where 𝐼𝑝𝑣 and 𝑉𝑝𝑣 are, respectively, the
output current and output voltage of the solar array, 𝑅𝑠ℎ and 𝑅𝑠 represent the intrinsic shunt and
series resistances. The electrical model is simplified by taking 𝑅𝑠ℎ very large and 𝑅𝑠 very small.

Fig.Model of PV Cell
The output current 𝐼𝑝𝑣 is

The photo-current can be expressed by

The expression of the saturation current is given by

where

: saturation current (A)

: cell temperature (K)

: reference temperature (K)

: saturation current at 𝑟

: solar irradiance (W/𝑚2)

: reference irradiation (W/𝑚2) 𝐼𝑠 𝑟

: short-circuit current at reference condition

: short-circuit temperature coefficient

: 𝐵𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑧𝑚𝑎𝑛′𝑠 constant

: electron’s charge

: ideality factor
3.5 LDR SENSORS

LDR

Light Dependent Resistor

A photoresistor or light dependent resistor or cadmium sulfide (CdS) cell is

a resistor whose resistance decreases with increasing incident light intensity. It can also be
referred to as a photoconductor.

A photo resistor is made of a high resistance semiconductor. If light falling on the device
is of high enough frequency, photons absorbed by the semiconductor give
bound electrons enough energy to jump into the conduction band. The resulting free electron
(and its hole partner) conduct electricity, there by lowering resistance.

A photoelectric device can be either intrinsic or extrinsic. An intrinsic semiconductor has

its own charge carriers and is not an efficient semiconductor, e.g. silicon. In intrinsic devices the
only available electrons are in the valence band, and hence the photon must have enough energy
to excite the electron across the entire bandgap. Extrinsic devices have impurities, also
called dopants, added whose ground state energy is closer to the conduction band; since the
electrons do not have as far to jump, lower energy photons (i.e., longer wavelengths and lower
frequencies) are sufficient to trigger the device. If a sample of silicon has some of its atoms
replaced by phosphorus atoms (impurities), there will be extra electrons available for conduction.
This is an example of an extrinsic semiconductor.

The symbol for a photoresistor

Applications:

Photoresistors come in many different types. Inexpensive cadmium sulfide cells can be
found in many consumer items such as camera light meters, street lights, clock radios, alarms,
and outdoor clocks.
 They are also used in some dynamic compressors together with a small incandescent
lamp or light emitting diode to control gain reduction.

Lead sulfide (PbS) and indium antimonide (InSb) LDRs (light dependent resistor) are
used for the mid infrared spectral region. Ge:Cu photoconductors are among the best far-
infrared detectors available, and are used for infrared astronomy and infrared spectroscopy.

Transducers are used for changing energy types.

A light dependent resistor

3.6 MOTOR

Almost every mechanical development that we see around us is accomplished by an electric

motor. Electric machines are a method of converting energy. Motors take electrical energy and
produce mechanical energy. Electric motors are utilized to power hundreds of devices we use in
everyday life.
Electric motors are broadly classified into two different categories: Direct Current (DC) motor
and Alternating Current (AC) motor. In this article we are going to discuss about the DC motor
and its working. And also how a gear DC motors works

A DC motor is an electric motor that runs on direct current power. In any electric motor,
operation is dependent upon simple electromagnetism. A current carrying conductor generates a
magnetic field, when this is then placed in an external magnetic field, it will encounter a force
proportional to the current in the conductor and to the strength of the external magnetic field.It is
a device which converts electrical energy to mechanical energy. It works on the fact that a
current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field experiences a force which causes it to
rotate with respect to its original position.
Practical DC Motor consists of field windings to provide the magnetic flux and armature which
acts as the conductor.

Brushless DC Motors Work

The input of a brushless DC motor is current/voltage and its output is torque. Understanding the
operation of DC motor is very simple from a basic diagram is shown in below. DC motor
basically consist two main parts. The rotating part is called the rotor and the stationary part is
also called the stator. The rotor rotates with respect to the stator.
 DC MOTOR

The rotor consists of windings, the windings being electrically associated with the commutator.
The geometry of the brushes, commutator contacts and rotor windings are such that when power
is applied, the polarities of the energized winding and the stator magnets are misaligned and the
rotor will turn until it is very nearly straightened with the stator’s field magnets.

As the rotor reaches alignment, the brushes move to the next commutator contacts and energize
the next winding. The rotation reverses the direction of current through the rotor winding,
prompting a flip of the rotor’s magnetic field, driving it to keep rotating.

Advantages of DC Motor:

1. Provide excellent speed control for acceleration and deceleration

2. Easy to understand design
3. Simple, cheap drive design
Connecting DC Motor with Microcontroller

Microcontrollers can’t drive the motors directly. So we need some kind of drivers to control the
speed and direction of motors. The motor drivers will acts as interfacing devices
between microcontrollers and motors. Motor drivers will act as current amplifiers since they take
a low current control signal and provide a high current signal. This high current signal is used to
drive the motors. Using L293D chip is the easy way for controlling the motor using
microcontroller. It contains two H-bridge driver circuits internally.
This chip is designed to control two motors. L293D has two sets of arrangements where 1 set has
input 1, input 2, output1,output 2, with enable pin while other set has input 3, input 4, output 3,
output 4 with other enable pin.

Here is a video related to L293D

Here is an example of DC motor which is interfaced with L293D microcontroller.

DC motor interfaced with

L293D microcontroller
L293D has two set of arrangements where one set has input 1, input 2, output 1 and output 2 and
other set has input 3, input 4, output 3 and output 4, according to above diagram,

 If pin no 2 and 7 are high then pin no 3 and 6 are also high. If enable 1 and pin number 2 are
high leaving pin number 7 as low then the motor rotates in forward direction.
 If enable 1 and pin number 7 are high leaving pin number 2 as low then the motor rotates in
reverse direction.
Today dc motors are still found in many applications as small as toys and disk drives or in large
sizes to operate steel rolling mills and paper machines.
DC Motor Equations

Magnitude of flux experienced is

F=BlI

Where, B- Flux density due to flux produced by field windings

l- Active length of the conductor

I-Current passing through the conductor

As the conductor rotates, an EMF is induced which acts in a direction opposite to the supplied
voltage. It is given as

Where, Ø- Fluz due to the field windings

P- Number of poles

A-A constant

N – Speed of the motor

Z- Number of conductors

The supply voltage, V = Eb + IaRa

The torque developed is

Thus the torque is directly proportional to the armature current.

Also speed varies with armature current, hence indirectly torque and speed of a motor are
dependant on each other.

For a DC shunt motor, speed remains almost constant even if torque increases from no load to
full load.

For a DC series motor, speed decreases as torque increases from no load to full load.

Thus torque can be controlled by varying the speed. Speed control is achieved either by

 Changing flux by controlling the current through field winding- Flux Control method. By this
method, speed is controlled above its rated speed.
 Armature Voltage Control – Provides speed control below its normal speed.
 Supply Voltage Control – Provides speed control in both directions.
4 Quadrant Operation of DC Motor

Generally a motor can operate in 4 different regions:

 As a motor in forward or clockwise direction.

 As a generator in forward direction.
 As a motor in reverse or anticlockwise direction.
 As a generator in reverse direction.

4 Quadrant Operation of DC Motor

In the first quadrant, motor is driving the load with both the speed and torque in positive
direction.

In the second quadrant, torque direction reverses and motor acts as a generator

In the third quadrant, motor drives the load with speed and torque in negative direction.

In the 4th quadrant, motor acts a generator in reverse mode.

In the first and third quadrant, motor acts in both forward and reverse directions. For example,
motors in cranes to lift the load and also put it down.

In the second and fourth quadrant, motor acts as a generator in forward and reverse directions
respectively and provides energy back to the power source. Thus the way to control a motor
operation, to make it operate in any of the 4 quadrants is by controlling its speed and direction of
rotation. Speed is controlled either by varying the armature voltage or weakening the field. The
torque direction or direction of rotation is controlled by varying the extent to which applied
voltage is greater than or less than the back emf.

Types of DC Motors

Geared DC Motors:

Geared motors tend to reduce the speed of the motor but with a corresponding increase in torque.
This property comes in handy, as DC motors can rotate at speeds much too fast for an electronic
device to makes use of. Geared motors commonly consist of a DC brush motor and a gearbox
attached to the shaft. Motors are distinguished as a geared by two connected units. It has many
applications due to its cost of designing, reduces the complexity and constructing applications
such as industrial equipment, actuators, medical tools and robotics.

 No good robot can ever be built without gears. All things considered, a good understanding of
how gears affect parameters such as torque and velocity are very important.
 Gears work on the principle of mechanical advantage. This implies that by using distinctive
gear diameters, we can exchange between rotational velocity and torque. Robots do not have
a desirable speed to torque ratio.
 In robotics, torque is better than speed. With gears, it is possible to exchange the high velocity
with a better torque. The increase in torque is inversely proportional to the reduction in speed.

Geared DC Motors
Speed Reduction in Geared DC Motor:

Speed Reduction in geared DC Motor

Speed reduction in gears comprises of a little gear driving a larger gear. There may be few sets of
these reduction gear sets in a reduction gear box. Sometimes the objective of using a gear motor
is to reduce the rotating shaft speed of a motor in the device being driven, for example in a small
electric clock where the tiny synchronous motor may be turning at 1,200 rpm however is
decreased to one rpm to drive the second hand and further reduced in the clock mechanism to
drive the minute and hour hands. Here the amount of driving force is irrelevant as long as it is
sufficient to overcome the frictional impacts of the clock mechanism.

Series DC Motor:
Series motor is a DC series motor where field winding is connected internally in series to the
armature winding. The series motor provides high starting torque but must never be run without
a load and is able to move very large shaft loads when it is first energized. Series motors are also
known as series-wound motor.

In series motors, the field windings are associated in series with the armature. The field strength
varies with progressions in armature current. At the time its speed is reduced by a load, the series
motor advances more excellent torque. Its starting torque is more than different sorts of DC
motor. It can also radiate more easily the heat that has built up in the winding due to the large
amount of current being carried. Its speed shifts considerably between full-load and no-load.
When load is removed, motor speed increases and current through the armature and field coils
decreases. Unloaded operation of large machines is hazardous.

Series Motor
Current through the armature and field coils decreases, the strength of the flux lines around them
weakens. If the strength of the flux lines around the coils were reduced at the same rate as the
current flowing through them, both would decrease at the same rate which the motor speed
increases.

Advantages of Series Motor:

 Huge starting torque

 Simple Construction
 Designing is easy
 Maintenance is easy
 Cost effective
Applications of Series Motor:
Series Motors can produce enormous turning power, the torque from its idle state. This
characteristic makes series motors suitable for small electrical appliances, versatile electric
equipments and etc. Series motors are not suitable when a constant speed is needed. The reason
is that the velocity of series motors varies greatly with varying load.

Shunt Motor:

Shunt motors are shunt DC motors, where the field windings shunted to or are connected in
parallel to the armature winding of the motor. The shunt DC motor is commonly used because of
its best speed regulation. Also hence both the armature winding and the field windings are
presented to the same supply voltage, however there are discrete branches for the stream of
armature current and the field current.

A shunt motor has somewhat distinctive working characteristics than a series motor. Since the
shunt field coil is made of fine wire, it cannot produce the large current for starting like the series
field. This implies that the shunt motor has extremely low starting torque, which requires that the
shaft load be quite little.

Shunt Motor
When voltage is applied to the shunt motor, a very low amount of current flow through the shunt
coil. The armature for the shunt motor is similar to the series motor and it will draw current to
produce a strong magnetic field. Due to the interaction of magnetic field around armature and the
field produced around the shunt field, the motor starts to rotate. Like the series motor, when the
armature begins to turn, it will produce back EMF. The back EMF will cause the current in the
armature to begin to diminish to a very small level. The amount of current the armature will draw
is directly related to the size of the load when the motor reaches full speed. Since the load is
generally small, the armature current will be small.
Advantages of Shunt Motor:

 Simple control performance, resulting in a high level of flexibility for solving complex drive
problems
 High availability, therefore minimal service effort needed
 High level of electro-magnetic compatibility
 Very smooth running, therefore low mechanical stress of the overall system and high dynamic
control processes
 Wide control range and low speeds, therefore universally usable
Applications of Shunt Motor:

Shunt DC motors are very suitable for belt-driven applications. This constant speed motor is
used in industrial and automotive applications such as machine tools and winding/unwinding
machines where great amount of torque precision is required.

3.7 L293D Motor Driver IC

Submitted by RakeshRon on Fri, 08/16/2013 - 01:06

L293D Description

L293D is a typical Motor driver or Motor Driver IC which allows DC motor to drive on either
direction. L293D is a 16-pin IC which can control a set of two DC motors simultaneously in any
direction. It means that you can control two DC motor with a single L293D IC. Dual H-
bridge Motor Driver integrated circuit (IC).

The l293d can drive small and quiet big motors as well, check the Voltage Specification at the
end of this page for more info.

You can Buy L293D IC in any electronic shop very easily and it costs around 70 Rupees (INR)
or around 1 $ Dollar (approx Cost) or even lesser cost. You can find the necessary pin diagram,
working, a circuit diagram, Logic description and Project as you read through.

Concept

It works on the concept of H-bridge. H-bridge is a circuit which allows the voltage to be flown
in either direction. As you know voltage need to change its direction for being able to rotate the
motor in clockwise or anticlockwise direction, Hence H-bridge IC are ideal for driving a DC
motor.

In a single L293D chip there are two h-Bridge circuit inside the IC which can rotate two dc
motor independently. Due its size it is very much used in robotic application for controlling DC
motors. Given below is the pin diagram of a L293D motor controller.

L293D PIN DIAGRAM

 5.ARDUINO SOFTWARE

Arduino IDE (Integrated Development Environment) is required to program the Arduino Uno
board. Download it here.

PROGRAMMING ARDUINO

Once arduino IDE is installed on the computer, connect the board with computer using USB
cable. Now open the arduino IDE and choose the correct board by selecting
Tools>Boards>Arduino/Genuino Uno, and choose the correct Port by selecting Tools>Port.
Arduino Uno is programmed using Arduino programming language based on Wiring. To get it
started with Arduino Uno board and blink the built-in LED, load the example code by selecting
Files>Examples>Basics>Blink. Once the example code (also shown below) is loaded into your
IDE, click on the ‘upload’ button given on the top bar. Once the upload is finished, you should
see the Arduino’s built-in LED blinking. Below is the example code for blinking:
 ARDUINO – INSTALLATION

After learning about the main parts of the Arduino UNO board, we are ready to learn how to set
up the Arduino IDE. Once we learn this, we will be ready to upload our program on the Arduino
board.

In this section, we will learn in easy steps, how to set up the Arduino IDE on our computer and
prepare the board to receive the program via USB cable.

Step 1: First you must have your Arduino board (you can choose your favorite board) and a
USB cable. In case you use Arduino UNO, Arduino Duemilanove, Nano, Arduino Mega 2560,
or Diecimila, you will need a standard USB cable (A plug to B plug), the kind you would
connect to a USB printer as shown in the following image.

In case you use Arduino Nano, you will need an A to Mini-B cable instead as shown in the
following image
Step 2: Download Arduino IDE Software.

You can get different versions of Arduino IDE from the Download page on the Arduino Official
website. You must select your software, which is compatible with your operating system
(Windows, IOS, or Linux). After your file download is complete, unzip the file.
Step 3: Power up your board.

The Arduino Uno, Mega, Duemilanove and Arduino Nano automatically draw power from
either, the USB connection to the computer or an external power supply. If you are using an
Arduino Diecimila, you have to make sure that the board is configured to draw power from the
USB connection. The power source is selected with a jumper, a small piece of plastic that fits
onto two of the three pins between the USB and power jacks. Check that it is on the two pins
closest to the USB port.

Connect the Arduino board to your computer using the USB cable. The green power LED
(labeled PWR) should glow.

Step 4: Launch Arduino IDE.

After your Arduino IDE software is downloaded, you need to unzip the folder. Inside the folder,
you can find the application icon with an infinity label (application.exe). Doubleclick the icon to
start the IDE
Step 5: Open your first project.

Once the software starts, you have two options:

 Create a new project.

 Open an existing project example.

To create a new project, select File --> New

To open an existing project example, select File -> Example -> Basics -> Blink.
Here, we are selecting just one of the examples with the name Blink. It turns the LED on and
off with some time delay. You can select any other example from the list.

Step 6: Select your Arduino board.

To avoid any error while uploading your program to the board, you must select the correct
Arduino board name, which matches with the board connected to your computer.

Go to Tools -> Board and select your board.

Here, we have selected Arduino Uno board according to our tutorial, but you must select the
name matching the board that you are using.

Step 7: Select your serial port.

Select the serial device of the Arduino board. Go to Tools -> Serial Port menu. This is likely to
be COM3 or higher (COM1 and COM2 are usually reserved for hardware serial ports). To find
out, you can disconnect your Arduino board and re-open the menu, the entry that disappears
should be of the Arduino board. Reconnect the board and select that serial port.
Step 8: Upload the program to your board.

Before explaining how we can upload our program to the board, we must demonstrate the
function of each symbol appearing in the Arduino IDE toolbar
A- Used to check if there is any compilation error.

B- Used to upload a program to the Arduino board.

C- Shortcut used to create a new sketch.

D- Used to directly open one of the example sketch.

E- Used to save your sketch.

F- Serial monitor used to receive serial data from the board and send the serial data to the board.

Now, simply click the "Upload" button in the environment. Wait a few seconds; you will see the
RX and TX LEDs on the board, flashing. If the upload is successful, the message "Done
uploading" will appear in the status bar.

Note: If you have an Arduino Mini, NG, or other board, you need to press the reset button
physically on the board, immediately before clicking the upload button on the Arduino
Software.
ARDUINO – PROGRAM STRUCTURE

we will study in depth, the Arduino program structure and we will learn more new
terminologies used in the Arduino world. The Arduino software is open-source. The source
code for the Java environment is released under the GPL and the C/C++ microcontroller
libraries are under the LGPL.

Sketch: The first new terminology is the Arduino program called “sketch”.

Structure Arduino programs can be divided in three main parts: Structure, Values (variables and
constants), and Functions. In this tutorial, we will learn about the Arduino software program,
step by step, and how we can write the program without any syntax or compilation error.

Let us start with the Structure. Software structure consist of two main functions:

 Setup( ) function

 Loop( ) function
PURPOSE: The setup() function is called when a sketch starts. Use it to initialize the variables,
pin modes, start using libraries, etc. The setup function will only run once, after each power up
or reset of the Arduino board.

INPUT: -

OUTPUT: -

RETURN:

PURPOSE: After creating a setup() function, which initializes and sets the initial values, the
loop() function does precisely what its name suggests, and loops consecutively, allowing your
program to change and respond. Use it to actively control the Arduino board.

INPUT: -

OUTPUT: -

RETURN:
 6.RESULT

Add hardware kit photos

 7. CONCLUSION

 Dual axis solar tracker is placed in order to track the sun radiations in all the directions
with maximum intensity to produce electricity.
 It is the most efficient method for the energy conversion and less economical when
compared to other systems. This paper shows us the comparison of single axis solar
tracker with dual axis solar tracker
 where it is clearly shown that dual axis is more efficient and produces more than
5%[2]of the energy when compared to fixed and single axis solar tracking system
 8. BIBLIOGRAPHY

[1] Power from the sun. (n.d.). Retrieved fromhttp://www.powerfromthesun.net/Boo kl

[2] The Sun's Position. (2013, March 28). Tn Photovoltaic Education Network,
fromhttp://pveducation.org/pvcdrom/properties-of-sun light suns position

[3] Zhan, T., Lin, W., Tsai, M. and Wang, G. Design and Implementation of the Dual-axis Solar
Tracking System.TEEE.37th Annual Computer Software and Applications Conference. pp. 276-
277 (20 II)

[4] Zolkapli, M., AI-Junid S. A., Othman Z., Manut, A., and Mohd Zulkifli A. High-efficiency
dual-axis solar tracking development using Arduino .IEEE .International Conference on
Technology, Informatics, Management, Engineering & Environment.pp.43-47 (2013.

[5] S. Hawibowo, I. Ala, R. B. Citra Lestari and F. R. Saputri, "Stepper Motor Driven Solar
Tracker System for Solar Panel," 2018 4th International Conference on Science and Technology
(ICST), 2018, pp. 1-4, doi: 10.1109/ICSTC.2018.8528571.

[6] S. V. Mitrofanov, D. K. Baykasenov and A. U. Nemaltsev, "Operation of Solar Power Plant

with Solar Tracker in Orenburg Region During the Winter," 2019 International Ural Conference
on Electrical Power Engineering (UralCon), 2019, pp. 138-142, doi:
10.1109/URALCON.2019.8877677