Ans to the question no:1 (a)
P-Type, N-Type Semiconductors
p-n junction diodes are made up of two adjacent pieces of p-type and
n-type semiconducting materials. p-type and n-type materials are
simply semiconductors, such as silicon (Si) or germanium (Ge), with
atomic impurities; the type of impurity present determines the type of
the semiconductor. The process of purposefully adding impurities to
materials is called doping; semiconductors with impurities are referred
to as "doped semiconductors".
p-type
In a pure (intrinsic) Si or Ge semiconductor, each nucleus uses its four
valence electrons to form four covalent bonds with its neighbors (see figure
below). Each ionic core, consisting of the nucleus and non-valent electrons,
has a net charge of +4, and is surrounded by 4 valence electrons. Since
there are no excess electrons or holes In this case, the number of electrons
and holes present at any given time will always be equal.
An intrinsic semiconductor. Note each +4 ion is surrounded by four
electrons.
Now, if one of the atoms in the semiconductor lattice is replaced by an
element with three valence electrons, such as a Group 3 element like Boron
(B) or Gallium (Ga), the electron-hole balance will be changed. This impurity
will only be able to contribute three valence electrons to the lattice,
therefore leaving one excess hole (see figure below). Since holes will
"accept" free electrons, a Group 3 impurity is also called an acceptor.
A semiconductor doped with an acceptor. An excess hole is now present.
Because an acceptor donates excess holes, which are considered to be
positively charged, a semiconductor that has been doped with an acceptor is
called a p-type semiconductor; "p" stands for positive. Notice that the
material as a whole remains electrically neutral. In a p-type semiconductor,
current is largely carried by the holes, which outnumber the free electrons.
In this case, the holes are the majority carriers, while the electrons are the
minority carriers.
n-type
In addition to replacing one of the lattice atoms with a Group 3 atom, we can
also replace it by an atom with five valence electrons, such as the Group 5
atoms arsenic (As) or phosphorus (P). In this case, the impurity adds five
valence electrons to the lattice where it can only hold four. This means that
there is now one excess electron in the lattice (see figure below). Because it
donates an electron, a Group 5 impurity is called a donor. Note that the
material remains electrically neutral.
A semiconductor doped with a donor. A free electron is now present.
Donor impurities donate negatively charged electrons to the lattice, so a
semiconductor that has been doped with a donor is called an n-type
semiconductor; "n" stands for negative. Free electrons outnumber holes in
an n-type material, so the electrons are the majority carriers and holes are
the minority carriers.
Ans to the question no:1 (b)
Difference between Intrinsic and
Extrinsic Semiconductor
Semiconductor devices are extensively used in the field of electronics. A
semiconductor is a substance whose resistivity lies between conductors and
insulators. Semiconductors have negative temperature co-efficient. The
resistance in semiconductors increases with the decrease in temperature and
vice versa. The conducting properties of a semiconductor changes, when a
suitable metallic impurity is added to it.
In this article, we will highlight the major differences between
intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors by considering different parameters
such as doping level, conductivity, charge density, etc.
What is an Intrinsic Semiconductor?
A semiconductor material in its pure form is known as an intrinsic
semiconductor. Thus, the intrinsic semiconductors are chemically pure, i.e.
they are free from impurities.
In case of intrinsic semiconductors, the number of charge carriers, i.e., holes
and electrons are determined by the properties of the semiconductor material
itself instead of the impurity. Also, the number of free electrons is equal to the
number of holes in the intrinsic semiconductor. The common examples of the
intrinsic semiconductors are germanium (Ge) and silicon (Si).
What is an Extrinsic Semiconductor?
When a small amount of chemical impurity is added to an intrinsic
semiconductor, then the resulting semiconductor material is known as extrinsic
semiconductor. The extrinsic semiconductor is also known as doped
semiconductor. The process of adding impurity in the intrinsic semiconductor
is known as doping. The doping of semiconductors increases their conductivity
Based on the type of doping, the extrinsic semiconductors are classified into two
types viz. N-type semiconductors and P-type semiconductors. When a
pentavalent impurity is added to an intrinsic semiconductor, then the resulting
semiconductor is termed as N-type semiconductor. On the other hand, when a
trivalent impurity is added to a pure semiconductor, then the obtained
semiconductor is known as P-type semiconductor.
Ans to the question no:2 (a)
I-V Characteristic Curves
The current-voltage, (I-V) Characteristics Curves define the operating characteristics of
an electronic device
The I-V Characteristic Curves, which is short for Current-Voltage Characteristic Curves or
simply I-V curves of an electrical device or component, are a set of graphical curves which are
used to define its operation within an electrical circuit. As its name suggests, I-V characteristic
curves show the relationship between the current flowing through an electronic device and the
applied voltage across its terminals.
I-V characteristic curves are generally used as a tool to determine and understand the basic
parameters of a component or device and which can also be used to mathematically model its
behaviour within an electronic circuit. But as with most electronic devices, there are an infinite
number of I-V characteristic curves representing the various inputs or parameters and as such
we can display a family or group of curves on the same graph to represent the various values.
For example, the “current-voltage characteristics” of a bipolar transistor can be shown with
various amounts of base drive or the I-V characteristic curves of a diode operating in both its
forward and reverse regions.
But the static current–voltage characteristics of a component or device need not be a straight
line. Take for example the characteristics of a fixed value resistor, we would expect them to be
reasonably straight and constant within certain ranges of current, voltage and power as it is a
linear or ohmic device.
There are however, other resistive elements such as LDR’s, thermistors, varistor’s, and even the
light bulb, whose I-V characteristic curves are not straight or linear lines but instead are curved
or shaped and are therefore called non-linear devices because their resistances are non-linear
resistances.
If the electrical supply voltage, V applied to the terminals of the resistive element R above was
varied, and the resulting current, I measured, this current would be characterised as: I = V/R,
being one of Ohm’s Law equations.
We know from Ohm’s Law that as the voltage across the resistor increases so too does the
current flowing through it, it would be possible to construct a graph to show the relationship
between the voltage and current as shown with the graph representing the the volt-ampere
characteristics (its i-v characteristic curves) of the resistive element. Consider the circuit below.
