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Practical Research 2: Introduction to Quantitative Research

Overview

Quantitative research is a systematic investigation involving the collection and analysis of numerical
data to understand phenomena. This approach contrasts with qualitative research, which focuses on
descriptive data. Below is a detailed exploration of quantitative research, including its characteristics,
strengths, weaknesses, and various types.

Key Information

Topic Details
Definition Quantitative research uses scientifically collected and statistically analyzed
data to investigate observable phenomena.

Purpose To obtain formal, objective, and systematic answers to a research question or

problem.

Data Types Numerical data (e.g., student grades, survey ratings)

Data Analysis Statistical methods (e.g., Pearson’s r, t-test, ANOVA)
Methods

Data Collection Can be quick and involves standardized instruments like surveys

Difference between Qualitative and Quantitative Research

Quantitative and qualitative research methods are the two main classifications of research. This
introduction to quantitative research explains its formal, objective, and systematic approach to
answering research questions.

Aspect Quantitative Research Qualitative Research

Data Type Numerical data Descriptive data (words, images,
transcripts)

Sample Size Large, generalizable to the population Small, not generalizable

Data Standardized instruments, quick and In-depth, time-consuming
Collection efficient

Data Analysis Statistical methods (e.g., Pearson’s r, t-test, Interpretative analysis

ANOVA)

Objective Systematic and objective answers to Detailed description of phenomena

research questions

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Characteristics of Quantitative Research

Characteristic Description
Large Sample Size  Data from a large sample size provides more meaningful statistical
results.
Objective  Data gathering and analysis are done accurately and objectively,
minimizing personal bias.
Visual Result  Numerical data can be presented through graphs, charts, and tables
Presentation for better interpretation.
Faster Data Analysis  Use of statistical tools allows for quick analysis.

Generalized Data  Data from a sample can be applied to the population if the sample
is sufficient and randomly selected.
Fast Data Collection  Standardized instruments allow efficient data collection from large
samples.
Reliable Data  Objective analysis from representative samples makes the data
credible and reliable.
Replication  The method can be repeated to verify findings, enhancing validity.

Strengths and Weaknesses of Quantitative Research

Strengths Weaknesses
 Can be replicated or repeated  Lacks depth in exploring problems or concepts

 Findings are generalizable to the  Does not provide comprehensive explanation of

population human experiences

 Conclusively establishes cause and effect  Some information (e.g., feelings, beliefs) cannot
be quantified

 Predictive capabilities  Rigid and inflexible research design

 Fast and easy data analysis  Limited response choices for participants
 Objective  Potential for inaccurate responses
 Validity and reliability can be established  Large sample sizes can be costly

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Types of Quantitative Research

Type Description Example

Descriptive  Describes a phenomenon Determining types of

without experimental physical activities
manipulation. and their frequency
among high school
students.
Correlational  Identifies relationships Relationship
between variables without between physical
considering cause and effect. activity and
academic
achievement.
Ex Post Facto  The term "ex post facto" Influence of parents'
means "after the fact," academic
reflecting the retrospective achievement on
nature of this research children's obesity.
method. Investigates
relationships between
previous events and present
conditions, without
experimental manipulation.
Quasi-  Establishes cause-and-effect Effects of
Experimental relationships with less unemployment on
validity due to lack of attitudes towards
random selection and safety protocols.
assignment of subjects.
Experimental  Establishes cause-and-effect Comparing the
relationships with high effects of different
validity due to random blended learning
assignment and methods on reading
experimental manipulation. comprehension in
pupils.

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Lesson 2: Importance of Quantitative Research Across Fields
Introduction

Quantitative research plays a vital role in understanding and solving various problems across
multiple fields. This lesson highlights its importance and contributions in different areas such as
social sciences, natural and physical sciences, agriculture, sports, business, arts, and environmental
science.

Key Points

1. Value in Discovering Solutions: Quantitative research has historically paved the way for meaningful
solutions to challenges, such as the development of vaccines.
2. Impact on Decision Making: Quantitative studies influence decisions by leaders and lawmakers for
public safety and welfare.
3. Understanding Relationships: Helps in understanding relationships between variables, crucial for
making informed decisions.
4. Foundation for Innovations: Most modern inventions and innovations stem from rigorous
quantitative research.

Importance of Quantitative Research Across Various Fields

Field Contributions Examples

Social Science Effects of intervention on group behavior, The effects of the pandemic on
understanding cultural conflicts, human social behavior and economic
satisfaction and stressors status
Natural and Investigate the effectiveness of treatments, Antidiabetic properties of common
Physical Sciences finding alternative energy sources, Philippine herbs
advancements in material science
Agriculture and Increase crop yield, prevention and cure for The effectiveness of organic and
Fisheries diseases in crops and livestock inorganic fertilizers on vegetable
production
Sports Enhance athletic performance through diet and Techniques for different kinds of
exercise techniques sports
Business Devise marketing strategies, improve Effectiveness of Facebook ads on
marketability sales
Arts and Design Relationship between color and space, The effects of music on learning
multimedia use for business and lifestyle and behavior
Environmental Understanding causes and effects of climate Environmental factors affecting
Science change natural calamities

Quantitative research is indispensable across various fields, providing a systematic and objective
approach to solving problems, influencing policy decisions, and driving innovations. Understanding
its importance and applications helps in appreciating its role in advancing knowledge and improving
conditions in numerous areas of human endeavor.

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Lesson 3: Variables in Quantitative Research
Introduction

Variables are fundamental in quantitative research, guiding the focus and scope of a study.
Understanding different types of variables simplifies data collection and analysis, which is essential
for conducting effective research.

Key Points

1. Definition of Variables: Variables are characteristics or conditions that can change or vary.
2. Types of Variables: Variables include dependent, independent, extraneous, and confounding variables.
3. Classifications of Variables: Variables can be quantitative (numerical) or qualitative (categorical).

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Types of Variables

Type Description Example

Dependent The outcome that is observed and measured. Its value Growth of tomatoes, number
Variable depends on the independent variable. of fruits produced
Independent The factor that is manipulated to observe its effect on Amount of sunlight, water,
Variable the dependent variable. nutrients in soil
Extraneous Factors that might influence the outcome but are not Presence of pests,
Variable manipulated or controlled by the researcher. environmental stressors
Confounding An extraneous variable that significantly affects the Infestation by pests affecting
Variable outcome, making it hard to determine the exact cause. the growth of tomatoes

Example 1

Scenario: Studying the Impact of Study Habits on Academic Performance

Research Question: How do different study habits affect the academic performance of senior high
school students?

Objective: To investigate the relationship between study habits (independent variable) and academic
performance (dependent variable), considering extraneous variables that might influence the
outcome.

Variables in the Scenario

Type Description Example in Scenario
Dependent – The outcome that is observed and Students' academic
Variable measured. Its value depends on the performance (measured by
independent variable. GPA or test scores)

Independent – The factor that is manipulated to Study habits (e.g., hours spent
Variable observe its effect on the dependent studying, study environment,
variable. use of study aids)

Extraneous – Factors that might influence the Students' prior knowledge,

Variable outcome but are not manipulated or class attendance, socioeconomic
controlled by the researcher. status

Confounding – An extraneous variable that Access to tutoring services,

Variable significantly affects the outcome, parental involvement
making it hard to determine the exact
cause.

Classifications of Variables

Classification Type Description Example

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Quantitative Discrete Countable whole Number of students in a
numbers. class, group size, frequency
Continuous Can take fractional values, Height, temperature
positive or negative.

Measurement Interval Equal intervals between Temperature in Celsius, year,

Levels values; arbitrary zero. IQ score
Ratio Similar to interval but Age, height, weight, distance
with a true zero point.
Qualitative Dichotomous Two distinct categories or Yes/No responses
values.
Nominal Categories without a Blood type, hair color, mode
meaningful order. of transportation
Ordinal Categories with a Survey ratings (1-5), cancer
meaningful order. stages, academic honors

Detailed Descriptions

1. Quantitative Variables:
o Discrete Variables: Whole numbers that are countable and do not take values between fixed
points.
 Example: Number of students in a class.
o Continuous Variables: Values that can be fractions, positive or negative.
 Example: Temperature, height.
2. Levels of Measurement:
o Interval: Equal differences between consecutive values, arbitrary zero point.
 Example: IQ scores, temperature in Celsius.
o Ratio: Similar to interval but with a true zero point indicating the absence of the measured
quantity.
 Example: Weight, distance.
3. Qualitative Variables:
o Dichotomous: Only two categories.
 Example: Yes/No answers.
o Nominal: Categories without order.
 Example: Blood type, hair color.
o Ordinal: Ranked categories with a meaningful order.
 Example: Cancer stages, survey ratings.

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Understanding different types and classifications of variables is crucial for effective quantitative
research. Identifying and managing these variables helps in accurate data collection, analysis, and
interpretation, ultimately leading to valid and reliable research outcomes.

Identifying the Inquiry and Stating the Problem: Designing Research Topic

What I Need to Know

The initial step in research is selecting and defining a research problem. Understanding the specific
qualities, tools, and information needed is essential for a successful research journey. A well-defined
research topic is crucial for effective data collection and analysis, preventing potential setbacks. The
four basic steps in designing a research topic include:

1. Choose a broad topic.

2. Conduct preliminary research.
3. Define the problem.
4. Refine the question.

Steps in Developing a Research Topic

Despite advancements in knowledge and technology, there remains much to discover. Identifying a
research problem involves a systematic approach:

1. Choose a Broad Topic

2. Conduct Preliminary Research
3. Define the Problem
4. Refine the Question

Detailed Steps in Designing a Research Topic

Step Description Example

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 Choose a Broad Select an interesting, significant topic Broad topics like environmental
Topic relevant to your field. conservation, education technology, or
public health interventions.
Conduct Gain a better understanding of the topic Reading journals and articles on your
Preliminary through literature reviews, articles, and chosen topic to see what has been done
Research related research studies. and identify gaps.
Define the Narrow down the broad topic into specific, Narrowing "public health interventions"
Problem feasible, and manageable research questions. to "effectiveness of vaccination
campaigns in urban areas".
Refine the Evaluate and adjust the research questions Refining "effectiveness of vaccination
Question for clarity and feasibility, considering time campaigns" to "impact of social media
and resource constraints. on vaccination rates".
Choosing a Broad Topic

Tips:

1. Choose an Interesting Topic:

o Motivation is key. Select something you are passionate about.
o Example: If you are interested in technology, consider topics like the impact of mobile apps on
education.
2. Select a Significant Topic:
o Address real problems with socio-economic relevance.
o Example: Investigating strategies to reduce plastic waste in your community.
3. Choose a Topic Relevant to Your Field:
o Align your research with your chosen track.
o Example: An ABM student might research business strategies for small enterprises.

Other Sources of Ideas:

 Department of Science and Technology (DOST) Harmonized National R&D Agenda: Provides
research priorities.
 Review of Literature: Identify gaps and recommendations from existing studies.
 Field Experts: Seek insights and collaboration opportunities.
 Brainstorming: Gather ideas from peers, family, and social media.

Conduct Preliminary Research

Actions:

 Read articles, journals, and related research studies.

 Understand how data is gathered, research instruments used, and significant findings.
 Continue the literature review to deepen your understanding.

Define the Problem

Actions:

 List specific questions or problems based on the preliminary research.

 Narrow down the broad topic by focusing on specific populations, places, periods, or characteristics.

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  Ensure the problem is not too narrow, allowing for the collection of unique data and generation of new
information.

Refine the Question

Actions:

 Evaluate and fine-tune your research questions.

 Consider the course requirements, time constraints, and resource availability.
 Ensure questions are specific, manageable, and aligned with your research objectives.

Example Scenario: Designing a Research Topic

Step Example
Choose a Broad Topic Environmental conservation

Conduct Preliminary Read journals on conservation strategies, focusing on urban areas.

Research

Define the Problem Investigate the impact of recycling programs in urban communities.

Refine the Question How effective are community-led recycling programs in reducing
plastic waste in urban neighborhoods?

By following these structured steps, you can effectively design a research topic that is well-defined,
feasible, and aligned with your interests and field of study.

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Crafting a Research Title: Guidelines and Steps
Module Objective: Learn how to create a suitable and captivating title for your quantitative research
study.

Importance of a Good Research Title

A well-constructed research title is crucial as it:

 Accurately describes the objective and scope of the research.

 Captures the attention of readers, encouraging them to read the entire study.
 Reflects the value and implications of the research findings.

Basic Guidelines for Making a Research Title

Guideline Description
1. Accurate Description Use specific terms to describe the subject and scope.
2. Avoid Abbreviations Do not use abbreviations unless they are widely known (e.g.,
DNA, ICT).
3. Avoid Lengthy Phrases Exclude phrases like “The study of,” “analysis of,” or “an
investigation of.”
4. Include Variables Mention the main dependent and independent variables.
5. Proper Grammar and Ensure correct grammar and punctuation.
Punctuation
6. Capitalization Capitalize all nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, and
the first and last words of the title.
7. Declarative Form Prefer a declarative form, though question forms are sometimes
used.
8. Omit Study Year Do not include the year unless it is a historical study.
9. Use Current Ensure the terminology is up-to-date.
Terminology
10. Word Limit Keep the title between 5 to 15 words, depending on institutional
requirements.
11. Use Common Names Prefer common names over chemical formulas (e.g., NH4).
12. Scientific Names Write and italicize full scientific names.
13. Reflect the Tone The title should match the academic tone of the paper, avoiding
casual, informal, or humorous language.

Steps to Writing a Research Title

Step Action Example
1. State Main Determine the primary goals of your Example: To examine the effects of social
Objectives study and write them in one to two media on the academic performance of
sentences. teenagers.
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 2. Include Keywords Incorporate important keywords and Example: Effects of Social Media Usage on
and Variables variables into a complete sentence. Academic Performance of High School
Students.
3. Shorten the Title Eliminate unnecessary words while Example: Social Media Usage and
retaining the main idea of the study. Academic Performance of High School
Students.
4. Correct Grammar Ensure there are no grammar or Example: Social Media Usage and
and Punctuation punctuation errors. Academic Performance of High School
Students.
5. Format Properly Follow the format required by your Example: (Ensure proper capitalization and
institution. formatting as per guidelines).

Example Titles and Their Analysis

Title Analysis
Effects of Social Media on Academic Good start, but lacks specificity regarding the population.
Performance
Social Media Usage and High School Improved by specifying the population, but could be shortened.
Students’ Grades
Impact of Social Media on High School Clear and specific, includes dependent (academic performance)
Academic Performance and independent (social media usage) variables.
Social Media and Academic Concise, specific, and includes key variables.
Performance in High School Students

Final Example

 Original Objective: To examine the effects of social media on the academic performance of high school
students.
 Revised Title: Social Media Usage and Academic Performance of High School Students.

By following these guidelines and steps, you can create a research title that is accurate, engaging, and
reflective of the content of your study.

Understanding the Background of Research

Module Objective: Learn how to effectively write the background of the study for your research paper,
providing context and establishing the importance of your research topic.

Importance of Background in Research

Purpose:

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  Bridges the gap between what is known and what is unknown about the research topic.
 Establishes the importance and context of the research problem.
 Justifies the need for the research by identifying and addressing research gaps.

What Is It?

Background of the Study: This section informs the reader about the context and relevance of the
research topic, explaining why the research is necessary and valuable.

Key Elements of the Background of the Study

Element Description Example
1. Known Summarize what is already Previous studies have shown that social
Information known about the topic from media usage impacts students' academic
existing literature. performance.

2. Research Identify what is not known or However, there is limited research on

Gaps underexplored in the current how specific social media platforms
literature. affect high school students' grades.

3. Need to Explain why it is important to Addressing this gap can help educators
Address Gaps address these gaps in the research. develop better strategies for managing
students' social media usage.

4. Study Provide the rationale for your This study aims to explore the effects of
Rationale study, explaining its significance different social media platforms on high
and potential contributions. school students' academic performance.

Steps to Write the Background of the Study

Step Action Example
1. Conduct a Perform an extensive review of existing Review articles, journals, and previous
Literature literature to gather information on the topic. research studies on social media usage
Review and academic performance.
2. Summarize Summarize the key findings from the Summarize findings that indicate social
Known literature review. media usage affects academic
Information performance.
3. Identify Highlight the gaps or unexplored areas in Identify the lack of research on the
Research Gaps the existing literature. impact of specific social media platforms
on high school students' grades.
4. Justify the Explain why it is important to address these Emphasize that understanding these
Need for gaps, emphasizing the potential impact and effects can help develop better
Research benefits of your research. educational strategies.

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 5. Write the Draft the background section by integrating Draft a paragraph that introduces the
Background the known information, research gaps, and topic, summarizes known information,
the need for your study in a coherent and identifies gaps, and explains the study's
concise manner. importance.
6. Refine and Review and refine the background section Edit the draft for clarity, coherence, and
Edit to ensure clarity, coherence, and proper accuracy.
grammar.

Example Background of the Study

Title: The Impact of Social Media Platforms on High School Students' Academic Performance

Background: Social media has become an integral part of modern life, particularly among teenagers.
Previous studies have shown that social media usage can significantly impact students' academic
performance. However, there is limited research on how specific social media platforms, such as
Instagram, Facebook, and Twitter, individually affect high school students' grades. Addressing this
gap is crucial as it can help educators and policymakers develop targeted strategies to manage students'
social media usage and improve academic outcomes. This study aims to explore the differential
impacts of various social media platforms on the academic performance of high school students,
providing valuable insights for both educators and parents.

Understanding Research Questions

Module Objective: Learn how to effectively formulate and evaluate research questions for a
quantitative research study.

Importance of Research Questions

Purpose:

 Clarify and specify the research problem.

 Guide the method of data collection and analysis.
 Ensure that the research is focused and manageable.

Characteristics of Good Research Questions

Characteristic Description Example

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 Feasible Consider time, energy, Feasible: "How do parents feel about blended
resources, and the scope of learning for elementary learners?"<br>Not
the research. Feasible: "How would giving each learner their
own laptop affect their performance?"

Clear Ensure clarity in the Clear: "What are the different learning delivery
wording so that all readers modes used in the school?"
interpret it the same way.

Significant Ensure that the question is Significant: "What is the relationship between
relevant and contributes to social media usage and academic performance
addressing the research among high school students?"
problem.

Ethical Ensure the welfare of Ethical: "What are the perceptions of students on
participants, avoiding online learning during the pandemic?"
physical or psychological
harm.

Types of Quantitative Research Questions

Type of Focus Example Questions
Research
Descriptive Observing and - What are the various social media platforms used
Research reporting aspects of the by Senior High Students?<br>- How many hours
research problem. do students spend on social media per week?

Correlational Determining - What is the relationship between the length of

Research relationships among hours spent on social media and the level of digital
two or more variables. literacy of students?<br>- Is there a significant
relationship between the type of social media used
and the level of digital literacy of students?

Ex Post Facto Identifying causes of a - Is there a difference in the literacy level of

Research phenomenon when students based on their cultural and educational
variables cannot be family background?
manipulated.

Experimental Exploring causal - Is there a significant difference in the posttest

Research relationships through scores of the control group and the experimental
manipulation or group?
control of variables.

Steps to Formulate Research Questions

Step Action Example

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 1. Identify the Define the broad research Example: Determine the relationship between
Research problem. learning delivery modes and students' learning
Problem styles.

2. Develop Create general questions Example: What are the different learning
General derived from the research delivery modes of the school?
Questions problem.

3. Create Formulate specific Example: What are the various learning styles of
Specific questions to address the students? Is there a significant relationship
Questions aspects of the general between learning delivery modes and learning
question. styles?

Example: Crafting Research Questions

Research Problem: The impact of learning delivery modes on students' learning styles.

Type of Research Example Research Questions

Descriptive - What are the various learning delivery modes used in the school?
Research - What are the different learning styles of the students?
Correlational - What is the relationship between the learning delivery modes and students' learning
Research styles?
- Is there a significant relationship between the mode of delivery and students'
academic performance?
Ex Post Facto - Is there a difference in learning styles based on the mode of delivery previously
Research experienced by students?
- How does the previous exposure to different learning delivery modes affect current
academic performance?
Experimental - Is there a significant difference in the academic performance of students who
Research experience different learning delivery modes?
- How does manipulating the mode of learning delivery affect students' engagement
and academic performance?

Characteristics of Good Research Questions (Detailed Examples)

Characteristic Description Detailed Example
Feasible Considering time, resources, - Feasible: "How do students perceive online learning
and the researcher's ability to during the pandemic?" (requires surveys and interviews)
gather data. - Not Feasible: "How would universal access to high-speed
internet for all students improve educational outcomes?"
(requires large-scale policy implementation and long-term
data collection)
Clear Clarity in wording to avoid - "What are the different strategies teachers use in blended
ambiguous interpretations. learning environments?"

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 Significant Ensuring that answering the - "How does blended learning impact student engagement
question provides in high school?"
meaningful insights.
Ethical Protecting the rights and - "What are the challenges faced by students with
well-being of research disabilities in online learning environments?" (ensuring
participants. confidentiality and consent)

By following these guidelines, you can develop well-defined, feasible, clear, significant, and ethical
research questions that will guide your quantitative research study effectively.

Understanding Scope and Delimitation of the Study

Module Objective: Learn how to effectively define the scope and delimitation of a research study to
ensure clarity and focus.

Importance of Scope and Delimitation

Purpose:

 Define the boundaries of the study.

 Ensure research procedures and results align with the study's goals.
 Clarify what will and will not be included in the study.

Components of Scope and Delimitation

Component Description Example

Topic of the Study Specifies the variables Included: "The relationship between online
to be included and learning and high school students' academic
excluded. performance."
Excluded: "Elementary or college students'
academic performance."

Objectives or Explains why the "To determine the correlation between online
Problems to be study is being learning and the academic performance of
Addressed conducted. high school students during the COVID-19
pandemic."

Time Frame Indicates when the "The study will be conducted during the 2023-
study will be 2024 academic year."
conducted.
Locale of the Study Specifies where the "Data will be collected from high schools in
data will be gathered. New York City."

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 Characteristics of the Describes who the "Respondents will be high school students
Respondents respondents will be. aged 14-18 years."
Method and Explains how data "Data will be collected through online surveys
Research will be collected. and standardized academic performance
Instruments tests."

Difference Between Delimitation and Limitation of the Study

Aspect Description Example

Delimitation Describes the boundaries set by the "This study will not cover the online
researcher, including variables not included learning experiences of elementary or
in the study. college students."
Limitation Describes constraints that arose during the "The study is limited by the use of self-
design and conduct of the study, impacting its reported data, which may be subject to
scope. bias."

Example: Crafting Scope and Delimitation

Research Topic: The relationship between online learning and high school students' academic
performance.

Component Example
Topic of the Study Included: "Online learning, high school students' academic
performance."
Excluded: "Elementary or college students' academic
performance."
Objectives or Problems to be "To determine the correlation between online learning and
Addressed the academic performance of high school students during the
COVID-19 pandemic."
Time Frame "The study will be conducted during the 2023-2024 academic
year."
Locale of the Study "Data will be collected from high schools in New York City."
Characteristics of the "Respondents will be high school students aged 14-18 years."
Respondents
Method and Research "Data will be collected through online surveys and
Instruments standardized academic performance tests."

Detailed Examples
Scope:
 Variables: The study includes variables such as online learning methods and academic performance
indicators (e.g., grades, test scores).
 Population: The study focuses on high school students aged 14-18 years.
 Time Frame: The research will be conducted during the 2023-2024 academic year.
 Locale: Data will be collected from high schools in New York City.
 Method: Online surveys and standardized tests will be used to collect data.

Delimitation:

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  The study will not include elementary or college students.
 It will not examine long-term trends beyond the 2023-2024 academic year.
 Only public high schools in New York City will be included; private or charter schools are excluded.

Limitation:
 The study may be limited by the accuracy of self-reported data from students.
 The findings may not be generalizable to students outside New York City or to different educational
contexts.

Sample Scope and Delimitation of the Study

The main objective of this study is to provide information about students’ knowledge and perception of
genetically modified foods and their family health practices. The study also includes the student’s personal
information and occupation of their parents and siblings. This study is limited to the 120 Grade 12 Male and
Female enrolled in the First Semester, School Year 2019-2020 of Gusa Regional Science High School – X. Each of
the respondent is given questionnaire to answer. The students selected came from six different sections to
prevent subjective perceptions.

Conceptual
Framework
and
Review of
Related
Literature

Module
Objective:

Learn how to
develop a
suitable
conceptual
framework
and conduct a
review of
related literature for a research study.

Research Framework

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Definition: A research framework illustrates the structure or blueprint of the research plan and helps
formulate relevant research questions. It consists of key concepts and assumed relationships and can
be presented visually or narratively.

Types:

 Theoretical Framework: Anchors on time-tested theories relating findings to the underpinning

relevant theory of knowledge.
 Conceptual Framework: Refers to actual ideas, beliefs, and tentative theories that specifically support
the study.

Similarities of Theoretical and Conceptual Framework

Similarity Description
Provide an overall view of the research Both frameworks give a comprehensive
study overview of the research study.
Anchor a theory that supports the study They use existing theories to support the
research.
Guide in developing relevant research Help in formulating pertinent research
questions/objectives questions or objectives.
Help justify assumptions/hypotheses Provide a basis for the assumptions or
hypotheses in the study.
Aid in choosing appropriate methodology Assist in selecting suitable research methods.
Help in gathering and interpreting data Guide the process of data collection and
interpretation.
Guide in identifying possible threats to Assist in recognizing potential validity threats
validity in the study.

Differences Between Theoretical and Conceptual Framework

Aspect Theoretical Framework Conceptual Framework

Scope Broader, applicable to different studies Narrower, directly related to a specific study
Focus of Content Uses a particular theory already Based on a set of related concepts specific to
established in the field the study
Number of Presents one theory at a time May synthesize one or more theories
Theories
Time of Pre-existing before the conduct of the Developed during the planning and writing
Development study of a specific research

Guidelines for Choosing and Developing a Research Framework (Barrot, 2017)

Type Guidelines
Theoretical Framework  Understand the variables and their relationships.
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  Review related literature.
 Identify potential theories from literature.
 Select the most relevant theory.
Conceptual Framework  Identify key concepts from research questions or objectives.
 Search for existing theories incorporating these concepts.
 Create a concept map.
 Incorporate necessary concepts not covered by theories.
 Write a narrative explanation of each concept and their relationships.
 Align the framework with research questions.
 Refine the framework as needed.

Concept Map

Definition: A visual representation showing the relationship between ideas, starting with a main
topic and branching into sub-topics. Useful for organizing and developing new ideas.

Components:

 Lines, circles, boxes, and other symbols representing research elements.

 Formats include charts, graphic organizers, flowcharts, Venn diagrams, timelines, or T-charts.
 Helps visualize the comprehensive picture of the study.

Variables in Research Frameworks

Variable Type Description

Independent  The presumed cause, manipulated by the researcher, stable and

Variable unaffected by other variables.

Dependent  The presumed effect, altered due to manipulation of the independent

Variable variable, the problem element needing analysis.

Moderating  Influences the direction and strength of the relationship between

Variable independent and dependent variables, making the relationship stronger
or weaker.

Mediating  Exists between the independent and dependent variables, explaining the
Variable effects of the independent variable on the dependent variable.

Control Variable  Influences the dependent variable, integrated into the study to increase
accuracy, but not the main focus.

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Input-Process-Output Model (IPO)

Definition: A conceptual paradigm indicating inputs, required processes, and outputs, commonly
used in action research.

Component Description Example

Input Independent variables or "Online learning methods used by high
factors to be studied. school students."

Process Intervention or solution, "Surveys and standardized tests to evaluate

consisting of instruments and academic performance."
analyses.

Output Findings or outcomes of the "Improved understanding of the

interventions. relationship between online learning and
academic performance."

Example: Crafting a Conceptual Framework

Research Topic: The relationship between online learning methods and high school students'
academic performance.

Component Example
Independent Variable "Online learning methods"
Dependent Variable "Academic performance of high school students"
Moderating Variable "Access to technology"
Mediating Variable "Student engagement"
Control Variable "Socioeconomic status"

22
 This
conceptual
framework
shows the
independent
and
dependent
variables of
the study. It
is presumed
that the more
number of
hours a
student
prepares for
the exam, the
higher
would be the expected academic performance.

23
 This
conceptual
framework
shows the
input,
process, and
output
approach of
the study.
The input is
the
independent
variable,
which
includes the
socio-

demographic and food safety profile of the respondents. The process includes the tools and analyses in gathering
the data, while the output is the outcome based on the results of the study.

Concept Map Example:

1. Main Topic: Online Learning and Academic Performance

o Sub-topics:
 Types of Online Learning Methods
 Synchronous Learning
 Asynchronous Learning
 Academic Performance Indicators
 Grades
 Test Scores
 Mediating Factors
 Student Engagement
 Access to Technology

Narrative Explanation:

 The conceptual framework explores how different online learning methods (synchronous and
asynchronous) affect high school students' academic performance (grades and test scores). Student
engagement acts as a mediating variable, while access to technology is considered a moderating variable,
potentially influencing the strength and direction of the relationship between online learning methods
and academic performance. Socioeconomic status is a control variable to ensure accuracy in the findings.

By understanding and implementing these frameworks, researchers can create a structured and
coherent research study that is aligned with their research questions and objectives.

24
Definition of Terms

What I Need to Know

Including a "Definition of Terms" section in your research paper helps simplify technical terms essential
to understanding the research project. Although optional, this section prevents ambiguous meanings
and enhances comprehension of key terms. It is also known as the Operational Definition of Variables
(ODV), defining terms based on their usage in the study. There are two ways to define terms:
conceptual and operational definitions.

25
Conceptual Definition: Meaning of the term based on dictionary or encyclopedia definitions.

Operational Definition: Meaning of the term based on its usage in the study.

Terms need to be defined in two cases: if the term is not commonly known or if it has a specific or
unique meaning in the context of the study.

NOTE:
Arrange the following words/terms according to how it should be ordered. Note the number of sequence on
the space provided at the left side of the terms.

Benefits of Having Definition of Terms

1. Inclusion of Technical Terms: Useful for including technical terms related to research questions.
2. Clarification of Terms: Clarifies definitions, especially if terms have different meanings.
3. Ease of Reference: Makes it easier to check term meanings instead of searching through the paper.
4. Understanding Technical Jargon: Ensures the reader understands technical terminologies and jargon.

Guidelines on How to Write the Definition of Terms

1. Introductory Statement: Briefly describe the content of the definition of terms.

2. List Technical Terms: Include technical terms, especially variables and key terms in the title.
3. Alphabetical Order: Arrange the terms alphabetically.
4. Indentation: Apply indentation to each term.
5. Term Formatting: Follow the term with a period; it can be underlined, bold, or italicized.
6. Brevity: Keep definitions direct to the point.
7. Acronym Definition: Define acronyms/initials clearly by writing the complete name first, followed by
the acronym in parentheses.
8. Relevance: Include only relevant and significant technical terms.
9. Basic Definitions: Keep definitions brief and basic, elaborating on them in the body of the paper.
10. Institutional Format: Refer to your institutional format if applicable.

Examples of Writing the Definition of Terms

Conceptual Definition:

 Face to face: It is when the people involved are being close together and looking directly at each other.
 Module: Any in a series of standardized units used together, such as an educational unit that covers a
single subject or topic.
 Online: Controlled by or connected to another computer or network.

Operational Definition:

 Face to face: Refers to one of the modalities used in learning delivery in which the teacher and students
should be in the same place or setting, such as the classroom.
26
  Module: Teaching modules are guides of the topics and lessons of a specific subject given to students
under the modular method. It is also an alternative distance learning delivery in which students are
required to read and answer the activities specified in the module.
 Online: Refers to another form of distance learning wherein the teacher and students will have their
lessons using internet connectivity.

Research Hypothesis
What I Need to Know

When you have identified your research problem or objectives, the next step is to formulate the
hypothesis. A hypothesis is a tentative statement about the relationship between two or more variables.
It is a specific and testable prediction about what you expect to happen in your study.

Key Concepts Explanation Example

Hypothesis A tentative statement about the relationship If the poverty rate in society
between variables, proposing a possible increases, then the number of out-of-
relationship between the independent and school youth will also increase.
dependent variables.
Independent The variable that the researcher changes. Poverty rate
Variable
Dependent The variable that the researcher measures. Number of out-of-school youth
Variable
Testability The hypothesis must be testable through scientific Collect data on poverty rates and
methods. school attendance.
Falsifiability The hypothesis must be able to be proven wrong The hypothesis can be refuted if no
through experiments or empirical data. correlation is found between
poverty rates and school attendance.

Types of Research Hypothesis

Type Description Example

Simple Predicts the relationship between two The higher the poverty rate, the higher the
Hypothesis variables: one independent and one number of out-of-school youth.
dependent variable.
Complex Predicts the relationship between Eating more vegetables and fruits (independent
Hypothesis multiple independent and dependent variables) leads to a better immune system and
variables. improved digestion (dependent variables).
Empirical Also known as the “working Plants watered daily grow faster than plants
Hypothesis hypothesis,” it is tested through watered once a week.
observation and experimentation.
Logical Based on logical reasoning with Tomato plants bear fruit faster on Earth than on
Hypothesis limited evidence, and can be verified the Moon.
logically.
Statistical Involves statistical analysis of a The psychosocial development of K-3 pupils in
Hypothesis sample population. private and public schools differs significantly.

27
 Null States there is no relationship between There is no significant change in health whether
Hypothesis the variables or insufficient evidence. one exercises daily or not.
(Ho)
Alternative States there is a relationship between Health improves with 8 hours of sleep
Hypothesis the variables, used to disprove the null compared to 4 hours.
(Ha) hypothesis.

Directional and Non-directional Hypotheses

Type Description Example

Directional Predicts the direction of the relationship Students who eat nutritious food have
Hypothesis between variables (positive or negative). higher grades than those who do not.
Non-directional States that a relationship exists between There is a significant difference in grades
Hypothesis variables but does not predict the between students with proper meals and
direction. those without.

Guidelines in Formulating Hypothesis

Guideline Description
Research Thoroughly Spend time researching the topic, focusing on relevant information and previous
studies.
Include Variables Your hypothesis must include the independent and dependent variables.
Reflect Relationships Clearly reflect the relationship between the variables in your hypothesis.
Be Specific and Keep your hypothesis simple and specific to make it easier to test.
Simple
Use Clear Language Make your hypothesis concise and use clear, simple language to avoid
misunderstandings.
Ensure Testability Your hypothesis should be testable through scientific methods without violating
ethical standards.
Falsifiability Ensure that your hypothesis can be proven wrong through experiments or
empirical data.
Example

Research Question: Does eating a nutritious breakfast affect students' academic performance?

Hypothesis: Students who eat a nutritious breakfast (independent variable) will have higher
academic performance (dependent variable) compared to those who do not eat a nutritious breakfast.

By following these guidelines and understanding the different types of hypotheses, you can
effectively formulate a hypothesis that is clear, testable, and relevant to your research objectives.

28
Review of Related Literature
What I Need to Know
After selecting your research topic, it's essential to conduct a thorough review of related literature.
This step is crucial as it provides a foundation for your research, helps identify gaps in existing
studies, and situates your work within the broader field.
Key Explanation Example
Concepts
Review of A compilation of studies related to a specific Reviewing studies on the impact of social
Related research area, evaluating, classifying, and media on mental health, identifying gaps in
Literature summarizing previous studies to justify your research focusing on adolescents.
research by exposing gaps.
Purpose The main goal is to connect your research to Finding that while there are many studies
the existing body of knowledge, discover on social media and mental health, few
new theories, identify gaps, and clarify focus specifically on adolescents' use
misconceptions. patterns and their psychological impact.
Structure The literature review should be structured to Organizing the review by themes, such as
make it easy for the reader to understand "Social Media Usage Patterns" and "Mental
different studies and their relevance to your Health Impacts."
research.

Structure of Literature Review

Section Description Example

29
 Introduction Presents the fundamental Introducing the topic by discussing the rise
idea of the literature of social media usage among adolescents
review. and its potential impact on mental health.
Main Body Organized discussion of Summarizing studies that show a
sources, summarizing and correlation between social media usage and
synthesizing literature depression, and synthesizing findings to
relevant to your study. highlight the lack of focus on adolescent-
specific impacts.
Conclusions/Recommendations Emphasizes what has been Concluding that while there is a general
learned from reviewing the understanding of social media's impact on
literature and indicates the mental health, more specific research is
direction of your study. needed on adolescents, and recommending
future studies to address this gap.

Types of Literature Review

Type Description Example

Context Review Focuses on the content or contextual Reviewing social media impact studies within
aspect of research, relating the study the broader context of digital communication's
to a larger body of knowledge. evolution.
Historical Organizes related research according Tracing the evolution of research on social
Review to the period it was conducted, media and mental health from early studies in
focusing on developments over time. the 2000s to recent research.
Integrative Summarizes recent knowledge, Comparing studies that argue for both positive
Review highlighting agreements and and negative impacts of social media on mental
disagreements among previous health, and synthesizing these perspectives.
research.
Methodological Compares and contrasts other studies' Assessing the different research methods used
Review methodologies with your current in social media studies, such as surveys,
research, evaluating strengths and experiments, and observational studies, and
gaps. discussing their strengths and weaknesses.
Self-study Demonstrates understanding of a Summarizing personal findings from a series of
Review specific body of knowledge, studies on social media's impact on personal
potentially leading to issues of bias. mental health, acknowledging potential biases.
Theoretical Introduces several theories or concepts Comparing psychological theories explaining
Review focused on a specific topic, comparing social media's impact on mental health, such as
them to the current study based on social comparison theory and the displacement
framework, hypothesis, consistency, hypothesis, and integrating them into the
and justification. current study's framework.

Types of Sources for a Literature Review

Source Type Description Example

Books Provide comprehensive information, often A book on digital media and
with a collection of research materials and psychological well-being that includes
articles. various studies and theories on the topic.

30
 Scholarly Peer-reviewed journals with articles written An article in the "Journal of Adolescent
Journals by experts in the field. Health" discussing the effects of social
media on adolescent mental health.
Dissertations Original research conducted as part of a A dissertation studying the impact of
Ph.D. program. Instagram on the self-esteem of high
school students.
Government Publications from government agencies A government report on digital media
Documents supporting research undertakings. usage among teenagers and its impact on
mental health.
Policy Reports Reports aimed at non-academic readers, A policy report from a health
often focused on being persuasive and organization recommending guidelines
providing policy recommendations. for social media use among adolescents.
Periodicals Findings published in newspapers, popular A news article summarizing recent
magazines, TV, radio broadcasts, or Internet studies on social media and mental
news summaries. health, intended for a general audience.

Steps in Writing a Literature Review

Step Description Example

Find/Search for Use search engines, university online Using Google Scholar to search for articles on
the Relevant libraries, snowballing, and related social media and mental health, and following
Literature dissertations to find relevant research. citations to find more relevant studies.
Log, Catalogue, Organize the gathered studies Using reference management software like
and Synthesize systematically, log reference EndNote to log citations, and creating an Excel
information, catalogue articles, and sheet to catalogue and synthesize findings
synthesize the information. from different studies.
Outlining and Draw up an outline, write the first Creating an outline with sections for
Writing Up draft, improve through multiple introduction, main themes, and conclusion,
drafts, and seek feedback from writing the first draft, and then revising it
qualified individuals. based on feedback from peers or mentors.
In-text Citation Use in-text citations and reference lists Citing sources in APA style within the text
and Referencing to acknowledge sources, following and providing a reference list at the end of the
Styles specific citation styles depending on paper, including all sources mentioned.
the field.
Example Literature Review Structure

Introduction

 Context: Introduction to the rise of social media and its potential impacts on adolescent mental health.
 Rationale: Justifying the need for the study by identifying gaps in existing research.

Main Body

 Theme 1: Social Media Usage Patterns

o Summary of studies showing various usage patterns among adolescents.
o Discussion of findings relevant to the current study.
 Theme 2: Mental Health Impacts
o Summary of studies linking social media usage to mental health outcomes.

31
 oSynthesis of findings, highlighting areas of agreement and disagreement.
 Theme 3: Specific Focus on Adolescents
o Examination of studies specifically focused on adolescents.
o Identification of gaps and limitations in existing research.

Conclusion/Recommendations

 Summary: Recap of what has been learned from the literature review.
 Future Research: Recommendations for future studies to address identified gaps, such as the need for
longitudinal studies on adolescents.

In-Text Citation and Referencing Example

In-Text Citation (APA Style)

 Paraphrasing: Research has shown that social media can significantly impact adolescent mental health
(Smith, 2020).
 Direct Quote: According to Smith (2020), "social media use among adolescents is linked to increased
levels of anxiety and depression" (p. 45).

References List (APA Style)

 Smith, J. (2020). The impact of social media on adolescent mental health. Journal of Adolescent Health, 45(3),
123-134. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2020.03.004

By following these guidelines and structuring your literature review effectively, you can create a
comprehensive and coherent foundation for your research study.

Presenting Written Review and Framework

Direction: Get ready for the presentation of your written review of related literature and conceptual
framework. The rubrics below will served as a guide on how you will be rated by your teacher. The 4C (content,
coherence, creativity, communication) technique will be used so that you can easily remember

32
Rubrics for Written Review of Literature and Conceptual Framework

Understanding Data and Ways to Systematically Collect Data

Overview

Quantitative research involves a structured and controlled approach to investigating research

questions, focusing on numerical data and statistical analysis. This module introduces the key concepts
and steps involved in selecting and implementing appropriate quantitative research designs.

Table of Contents

1. Introduction to Quantitative Research Designs

2. Types of Quantitative Research Designs
3. Steps in Selecting a Research Design

33
 4. Key Considerations in Quantitative Research

1. Introduction to Quantitative Research Designs

Quantitative research designs are the blueprints for conducting research. They provide a systematic
plan for collecting, measuring, and analyzing data, ensuring valid, objective, reliable, and accurate
results.

Concept Description
Research Design A logical and coherent overall strategy integrating all components of the research study.
Importance Ensures the researcher has a clear understanding of what to analyze and interpret.
2. Types of Quantitative Research Designs

Quantitative research designs can be classified into five main types, each serving different purposes
and suited to various research questions.

Type Description Purpose Example

Descriptive Exploratory design used Answers questions like Observing and reporting the
Research when little is known who, what, where, when, prevalence of a health
about the research and how much. condition in a community.
problem.
Correlational Determines the Clarifies relationships and Studying the relationship
Research relationship between two predicts the magnitude of between study habits and
or more variables. associations. academic performance.
Ex Post Facto Measures causes from Investigates cause and Analyzing the impact of past
Research pre-existing effects effect from past teaching methods on current
without control over occurrences. student performance.
variables.
Quasi- Measures causal Studies effects occurring Comparing learning outcomes
Experimental relationships with pre- during the study with between different teaching
Research established groups. limited conclusion strategies in pre-existing
validity. classes.
Experimental Uses controlled Attempts to directly affect Testing the efficacy of a new
Research environments to a variable through drug by randomly assigning
manipulate variables and manipulation. patients to treatment and
measure effects. control groups.
3. Steps in Selecting a Research Design

Selecting an appropriate research design involves several key steps:

Step Description
1. Define Research Questions Clearly state what you aim to investigate.
2. Identify Variables Determine the independent and dependent variables.
3. Review Literature Conduct a literature review to understand existing research and gaps.
4. Choose Design Type Select the design that best suits your research questions and objectives.
5. Plan Data Collection Develop a strategy for collecting and measuring data.
6. Consider Ethical Issues Ensure ethical guidelines are followed throughout the research process.

34
4. Key Considerations in Quantitative Research

When conducting quantitative research, several factors must be considered to ensure the validity and
reliability of the study:

Consideration Description
Variables Identify and define the variables involved in the study.
Sampling Procedure Choose an appropriate sampling method to ensure representative samples.
Data Collection Methods Select reliable and valid instruments for data collection.
Data Analysis Techniques Use appropriate statistical methods to analyze the data.
Ethical Guidelines Adhere to ethical standards to protect participants' rights and well-being.
Example of Applying Quantitative Research Design

Research Question:
"Does the implementation of a new teaching method improve student performance in mathematics?"

Steps:

1. Define Research Questions: Investigate the effect of the new teaching method on student performance.
2. Identify Variables:
o Independent Variable: Teaching method (new vs. traditional).
o Dependent Variable: Student performance (test scores).
3. Review Literature: Review existing studies on teaching methods and student performance.
4. Choose Design Type: Select an experimental design to manipulate the teaching method.
5. Plan Data Collection: Randomly assign students to either the new teaching method or the traditional
method.
6. Consider Ethical Issues: Obtain informed consent from students and ensure confidentiality.

By following these steps and considerations, researchers can systematically collect and analyze data to
answer their research questions accurately and reliably.

35
Sampling Procedure and the Sample
Overview

Determining the sample size and selecting the appropriate sampling procedure are crucial steps in
conducting quantitative research. This section will guide you through the key concepts of population
and sample, approaches for identifying sample size, and various probability sampling methods used
in quantitative research.

Table of Contents

1. Population and Sample

2. Approaches in Identifying the Sample Size
3. Probability Sampling in Quantitative Research

1. Population and Sample

Definitions:

 Population: The totality of all objects, elements, persons, and characteristics under consideration in a
research study.
 Target Population: The entire group of individuals or instances about whom the research is concerned
(e.g., all Senior High School Students in STEM in Cagayan de Oro City).
 Accessible Population: The portion of the target population to which the researcher has reasonable
access (e.g., STEM students at Marayon Science High School).

Importance of Sampling:

 Sampling is necessary when studying the whole population is impractical, costly, or time-consuming.
 A sample is a subset of the population that represents it adequately.
 A good sample increases the generalizability and applicability of the research findings.

2. Approaches in Identifying the Sample Size

Heuristics

 Rule of thumb for determining sample size:

o Descriptive Research: 10% to 20% of the population.
o Comparative Research: 15 subjects or groups.
o Survey: 800 subjects.
o Correlational Research: 100 to 200 subjects.
o Ex Post Facto Research: 30+ subjects.
o Experimental Research: 30 or more subjects.

Literature Review

36
  Reviewing similar studies to determine appropriate sample sizes enhances the validity of your sampling
procedure.

Power Analysis

 Statistical Power: The probability of rejecting the null hypothesis (ideal power is 80%).
 Effect Size: The level of difference between the experimental and control groups.
 Higher effect size implies a greater difference between groups, guiding the sample size needed to detect
significant effects.

3. Probability Sampling in Quantitative Research

1. Simple Random Sampling

 Every member of the accessible population has an equal chance of being selected.
 Methods include fishbowl technique, roulette wheel, or random number tables.
 Online tools are available for random sampling (e.g., randomizer.org).

2. Stratified Random Sampling

 Divides the population into strata or groups before sampling.

 Ensures representation of key subgroups (e.g., gender, grade level).
 Proportionate sampling can be calculated using the formula:
Sample Size per Stratum=(Number of Members per StratumTotal Accessible Population)×Computed T
otal Sample Size\text{Sample Size per Stratum} = \left( \frac{\text{Number of Members per
Stratum}}{\text{Total Accessible Population}} \right) \times \text{Computed Total Sample
Size}Sample Size per Stratum=(Total Accessible PopulationNumber of Members per Stratum
)×Computed Total Sample Size

3. Cluster Sampling

 Useful for large-scale studies with geographically dispersed populations.

 Involves grouping the population into clusters (e.g., regions, divisions, districts) and then randomly
selecting clusters for study.
 Example: Interviewing public senior high school students across Mindanao by selecting regions, then
divisions, then districts.

4. Systematic Sampling

 Selects samples based on a predetermined interval (every nth individual).

 The interval is calculated by dividing the population size by the desired sample size.
 Example: From a population of 75, to select 25 samples, choose every 3rd person on the list.

Example of Applying Sampling Procedures

Research Context:

"Investigate the effectiveness of a new teaching method on the academic performance of Senior High
School STEM students."

37
Steps:

1. Define Population: All Senior High School STEM students.

2. Determine Sample Size: Using heuristics, literature review, or power analysis.
3. Select Sampling Method:
o If accessible population is well-defined and homogeneous: Simple Random Sampling.
o If the population includes distinct subgroups: Stratified Random Sampling.
o For geographically dispersed population: Cluster Sampling.
o For ease of selection: Systematic Sampling.

By following these guidelines, you can systematically determine an appropriate sample size and select
a suitable sampling procedure, ensuring the validity and reliability of your research findings.

Research Instrument, Validity, and Reliability

Overview

Creating an effective research instrument is critical for obtaining accurate and reliable data in
quantitative research. This section will discuss the characteristics of a good research instrument, ways
to develop one, common scales used in quantitative research, and how to ensure the instrument's
validity and reliability.

Table of Contents

1. Quantitative Research Instrument

2. Characteristics of a Good Research Instrument
3. Ways in Developing Research Instrument
4. Common Scales Used in Quantitative Research
5. Types of Validity of Instrument
6. Reliability of Instrument
38
1. Quantitative Research Instrument

Definition:

Research instruments are tools used by researchers to gather data for specific research problems.
Common quantitative research instruments include:

 Performance Tests: Assess specific skills or competencies.

 Questionnaires: Collect a large amount of data quickly and efficiently.
 Interviews and Observation Checklists: Can be used in quantitative research if the data collected is
converted into numerical form.

2. Characteristics of a Good Research Instrument

1. Concise:
o Instruments should be succinct to avoid respondent fatigue, ensuring respondents remain
engaged and provide accurate answers.
2. Sequential:
o Arrange questions logically, from simple to complex, to help respondents answer questions
more easily.
3. Valid and Reliable:
o Instruments must be tested for validity and reliability to ensure they collect accurate and
appropriate data.
4. Easily Tabulated:
o Questions should be designed to facilitate easy data tabulation and analysis.

3. Ways in Developing Research Instrument

1. Adopting Existing Instruments:

o Use instruments from previous related studies.
2. Modifying Existing Instruments:
o Adapt existing instruments if they do not fully meet the requirements of your study.
3. Creating New Instruments:
o Develop a new instrument tailored to the specific variables and scope of your study.

4. Common Scales Used in Quantitative Research

1. Likert Scale:
o Respondents rate statements according to a provided scale (e.g., strongly agree to strongly
disagree).
2. Semantic Differential:
o Respondents rate a series of bipolar adjectives, providing more flexible and easily constructed
measures.

5. Types of Validity of Instrument

1. Face Validity:
o Also known as "logical validity," it is based on the instrument's appearance and an initial
judgment by the researcher.
39
 2. Content Validity:
o Ensures the instrument meets the study's objectives by checking if the questions elicit the
needed information. Experts in the field can verify this.
3. Construct Validity:
o Assesses if the instrument corresponds to the theoretical construct of the study, ensuring that
the measure relates to other measures as expected.
4. Concurrent Validity:
o The instrument's ability to predict results similar to already validated tests.
5. Predictive Validity:
o The instrument's ability to predict future outcomes similar to those obtained with other
validated tests (useful for aptitude tests).

6. Reliability of Instrument

1. Test-retest Reliability:
o Administer the same test to the same group of respondents twice and check the consistency of
the scores.
2. Equivalent Forms Reliability:
o Administer two identical tests, with different wording, to the same group of respondents to
check for consistency.
3. Internal Consistency Reliability:
o Measures how well the items in the instrument measure the same construct. Three methods
include:
 Split-half Coefficient: Dividing the test into two halves and checking for consistency.
 Cronbach’s Alpha: Statistical measure of internal consistency.
 Kuder-Richardson Formula: Specifically used for dichotomous items (e.g., yes/no
questions).

Example of Applying These Concepts

Research Context:

"Evaluate the impact of a new teaching method on student performance in mathematics."

Steps:

1. Define Research Instrument:

o Decide to use a questionnaire with a Likert scale to measure student attitudes and a
performance test to measure math skills.
2. Ensure Characteristics:
o Ensure the questionnaire is concise, sequential, valid, reliable, and easily tabulated.
3. Develop Instrument:
o Adopt relevant questions from previous studies, modify where necessary, and create new
questions to fill gaps.
4. Establish Validity and Reliability:
o Conduct a pilot test, seek expert validation for content validity, and use statistical methods to
establish reliability (e.g., test-retest reliability, Cronbach's alpha for internal consistency).

40
By meticulously preparing and validating your research instruments, you can ensure that your data
collection process is robust, leading to more accurate and reliable research findings.

41