Electronic Devices and Circuits

Dr Raman Balireddy
Department of EEE
UNIT V - FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS and OSCILATORS
 Objectives

• The concept of feedback

• Types of feedback circuits
• Various types of oscillator circuits
• Various types of Multivibrator circuits
 Outline of Presentation
• The concept of feedback
• Types of feedback circuits
• Various types of oscillator circuits
– RC phase shift
– LC
– Crystal

• Various types of Multivibrator circuits

– Astable
– Monostable
– Bistable
 Concept of feedback
• In amplifier circuits, feedback refers to the process of feeding a
portion of the output signal back to the input.
• This is done to control various properties of the amplifier, such as
gain, stability, bandwidth, and distortion.

• Feedback can be categorized into two main types: positive feedback

and negative feedback.
Gain Calculation for Negative and Positive
Feedback Systems
Comparison of Negative and Positive
Feedback Systems
 Types of Feedback Connections
• There are four basic ways of connecting the feedback signal. Both
voltage and current can be fed back to the input either in series or
parallel. Specifically, there can be:
1. Voltage-series feedback
2. Voltage-shunt feedback
3. Current-series feedback
4. Current-shunt feedback
• In the list above, voltage refers to connecting the output voltage as
input to the feedback network; current refers to tapping off some
output current through the feedback network.
• Series refers to connecting the feedback signal in series with the
input signal voltage; shunt refers to connecting the feedback signal in
shunt (parallel) with an inputcurrent source.
 Types of Feedback Connections

1. Voltage-series feedback
2. Voltage-shunt feedback

4. Current-shunt feedback 4. Current-shunt feedback

Comparison of Different Types of Feedback Connections
 Barkhausen criterion: Condition for
Oscillations
Two conditions are required for a sustained
state of oscillation:
1. The phase shift around the feedback loop
must be effectively 0°.
2. The voltage gain, A , around the closed
cl

feedback loop (loop gain) must equal or

greater than 1 (unity). For a sine wave
oscillator, the loop gain must be exactly 1;
otherwise the output is distorted with
clipping.
The feedback circuit accomplishes the necessary phase shift. For a
noninverting amplifier, the input to the amplifier is returned in phase
with the output. For an inverting amplifier, the input is returned 180° out
of phase withthe output.
 RC phase shift oscillator
Using classical network analysis,
the gain of the phase-shift
network calculated and making
the imaginary part of gain to 0 or
gain of the network at the
frequency at which the phase shift
is exactly 180° is found as,

and

For the loop gain 𝜷A to be greater than unity, the gain of

the amplifier stage must be greater than 1/ 𝜷 or 29:
A > 29
 RC phase shift oscillator
• When considering the operation of the feedback network, one might
naively select the values of R and C to provide (at a specific
frequency) 60 -phase shift per section for three sections, resulting in a
180° phase shift, as desired.
• This, however, is not the case, since each section of the RC in the
feedback network loads down the previous one. The net result that the
total phase shift be 180° is all that is important.
• The frequency given by Eq. is that at which the total phase
shift is 180°. If one measured the phase shift per RC section, each
section would not provide the same phase shift (although the overall
phase shift is 180°).
• If it were desired to obtain exactly a 60° phase shift for each of three
stages, then emitter-follower stages would be needed for each RC
section to prevent each from being loaded from the following circuit.
 Wein Bridge Oscillator
• A practical oscillator circuit
uses an Amplifier and RC
bridge circuit, with the
oscillator frequency set by the
R and C components.

• Resistors R1 and R2 and

capacitors C1 and C2 form the
frequency-adjustment elements,
and resistors R3 and R4 form
part of the feedback path.
• The amplifier output is connected as the bridge input at points 1 and
3. The bridge circuit output at points 3 and 4 is the input to the op-
amp.
 Wein Bridge Oscillator
• Neglecting loading effects of
the op-amp input and output
impedances, the analysis of the
bridge circuit results in
• Multiplication of opposite
branch impedances must be
equal And equating imaginary
part to 0.
and

• If, the values are R1 = R2 = R and C1 = C2 = C, the resulting

oscillator frequency is and

1
• With these 𝛽 = 3 . So, The value of Amplifier gain 𝐴 = 3.
 LC Oscillator circuits
A variety of oscillator circuits can be built
using LC combination in feedback network
by providing tuning in both the input and
output sections of the circuit.
The following types of oscillators are
obtained when the reactance elements are as
designated:
 Colpitts Oscillator
• One basic type of resonant circuit
feedback oscillator is the Colpitts,
named after its inventor
• This type of oscillator uses an LC
circuit in the feedback loop to
provide the necessary phase shift
and to act as a resonant filter that
passes only the desired frequency of
oscillation.
The approximate frequency of
oscillation is the resonant frequency
of the LC circuit and is established by
the values of C , C , and L according
1 2

to this familiar formula: where

 Colpitts Oscillator
• The attenuation, B, of the resonant
feedback circuit in the Colpitts oscillator
is basically determined by the values of 𝐶1
and 𝐶2 .
• Figure shows that the circulating tank
current is through both 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 are
effectively in series. The voltage
developed across 𝐶2 is the oscillator’s
output voltage (𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 ) and the voltage
developed across 𝐶1 is the feedback
voltage (𝑉𝑓 ), as indicated.
• The expression for the attenuation • The condition for oscillation is
vA B = 1, Then

• For startup, the voltage gain must be made slightly greater than
C /C .
1 2
 Hartley Oscillator
• The Hartley oscillator is similar to
the Colpitts except that the feedback
circuit consists of two series
inductors and a parallel capacitor as
shown in Figure
• In this circuit, the frequency of
oscillation for Q >10 is

• Where 𝐿 𝑇 = 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 .
• The inductors act in a role to
determine the attenuation, B, of the
feedback circuit as

To assure start-up of oscillation, A must be greater than 1/B.

v
 CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR
• A quartz crystal exhibits the property of
piezoelectric effect.
• When alternating voltage is applied to a crystal,
mechanical vibrations are set up—these vibrations
having a natural resonant frequency dependent on
the crystal.
• Although the crystal has electromechanical
resonance, we can represent the crystal action by an
equivalent electrical resonant circuit as shown in
Figure.
• The L and C represent electrical equivalents of crystal mass and
compliance, respectively, whereas resistance R is an electrical
equivalent of the crystal structure’s internal friction. The shunt
capacitance C represents the capacitance due to mechanical mounting
M

of the crystal.
• As crystal losses are small, the equivalent crystal Q (quality factor) is
high—typically 20,000.
 CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR
• The crystal as represented by the equivalent
electrical circuit of can have two resonant
frequencies.
• One resonant condition occurs when the
reactances of the series RLC leg are equal
(and opposite). For this condition, the
series-resonant impedance is very low
(equal to R ).

• The other resonant condition occurs at a higher frequency when the

reactance of the series-resonant leg equals the reactance of capacitor C
M. This is a parallel resonance or antiresonance condition of the crystal.
• At this frequency, the crystal offers a very high impedance to the
external circuit. The impedance versus frequency of the crystal is
shown in Figure.
 CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR
• An oscillator that uses a crystal as a series
resonant tank circuit is shown in Figure.
• The impedance of the crystal is minimum at
the series resonant frequency, thus providing
maximum feedback.
• The crystal tuning capacitor, C , is used to
C

“fine tune” the oscillator frequency by

“pulling” the resonant frequency of the
crystal slightly up or down.
• The resulting circuit frequency of oscillation is set, then, by the series-
resonant frequency of the crystal. Changes in supply voltage, transistor
device parameters, and so on, have no effect on the circuit operating
frequency, which is held stabilized by the crystal.
• The circuit frequency stability is set by the crystal frequency stability,
which is good.
 CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR
• A modified Colpitts configuration is shown
in Figure with a crystal acting as a parallel
resonant tank circuit.
• At the parallel-resonant operating
frequency, a crystal appears as an inductive
reactance of largest value.
• The impedance of the crystal is maximum
at parallel resonance, thus developing the
maximum voltage across the capacitors.
The voltage across C is fed back to the
1

input.
 Multivibrator
• Multivibrators are two-stage switching circuits in which the output
of the first stage is fed to the input of the second stage and vice-
versa.
• The outputs of two stages are complementary.
• Multivibrators are of three types, namely,
(i) Astable multivibrator,
(ii) Bistable multivibrator, and
(iii) Monostable
 Astable Multivibrator: Circuit discription
• The astable or free running
multivibrator generates square wave
without any external triggering pulse.
• It has no stable states, i.e. it has two
quasi stable states. It switches back and
forth from one state to the other,
remaining in each state for a time
depending upon the discharging of a
capacitive circuit.
• Figure shows a basic symmetrical transistor astable multivibrator in
which components in one half of a cycle of the circuit are identical
to their counter part in the other half.
• The square wave output can be taken from collector point of Q1 or
Q2.
 Astable Multivibrator: Operation
• When the supply voltage +VCC is applied,
one transistor will conduct more than
the other due to some circuit imbalance.
Initially, let us assume that Q1 is
conducting and Q2 is cut-off.
• Then VC1, the output of Q1 is equal to
VCE(sat), i.e. approximately zero volt and
VC2 = +VCC.
• At this instant, C1 charges exponentially with a time constant R1C1
towards the supply voltage through R and correspondingly VB2 also
1

increases exponentially towards VCC.

• When VB2 crosses the cut-in voltage, Q2 starts conducting and VC2 falls to
VCE(sat). Also, VB1 falls due to capacitive coupling between collector of Q2
and base of Q1, thereby driving Q1, into OFF state.
 Astable Multivibrator: Operation
• Now, the rise in voltage VC1 is coupled
through C to the base of Q2, causing a small
1

overshoot in voltage VB2.

• Thus Q1 is OFF and Q2 is ON. At this instant,
the voltage levels are: VB1 is negative, VC1 =
VCC, VB2 = VBE(sat) and VC2 = VCE(sat).
• When Q1 is OFF and Q2 is ON, the voltage VB1 increases exponentially
with a time constant R2C2 towards VCC. Therefore, Q1 is driven into
saturation and Q2 is cut-off.
• Now, the voltage levels are: VB1 = VBE(sat), VC1 = VCE(sat), VB2 is negative and VC2
=VCC.
• It is clear that when Q2 is ON, the falling voltage VC2 permits the
discharging of the capacitor C2 which drives Q1 into cut-off. The rising
voltage of VC1 feeds back to the base of Q2 tending to turn it ON.
• This process is said to be regenerative which repeats continuously.
Astable Multivibrator: Frequency
 Astable Multivibrator: Applicatons
1. The astable multivibrator is used as square wave generator,
voltage to frequency convertor and in pulse synchronisation,
as clock for binary logic signals, and so on.
2. Since it produces square waves, it is a source of production
of harmonic frequencies of higher order.
3. It is used in the construction of digital voltmeter and SMPS.
4. It can be operated as an oscillator over a wide range of audio
and radio frequencies.
 Monostable Multivibrator
• Monostable multivibrator has one stable
state and one quasi-stable state.
• It is also known as one-shot multivibrator or
univibrator.
• It remains in its stable state until an input
pulse triggers it into its quasistable state for a
time duration determined by the discharging
an RC circuit and the circuit returns to its
original stable state automatically.
• It remains there until the next trigger pulse is applied. Thus, a
monostable multivibrator cannot generate square waves of its own
like an astable multivibrator.
• Only external trigger pulses will cause it to generate the rectangular
waves.
• Figure shows the circuit of a monostable multivibrator. It consists of
two identical transistors Q1 and Q2 with equal collector resistancesof
RC1 and RC2.
 Monostable Multivibrator
• The output of Q2 is coupled to the
input at the base of Q1 through a
resistive attenuator in which C1 is a
small speed up capacitor to speed up
the transition.
• The values of R2 and –VBB are chosen so
as to reverse bias Q1 and keep it in the
OFF state.
• The collector supply +VCC and R will
forward bias Q2 and keep it in the ON
state. Actually, this is the stable state
for the circuit.
 Monostable Multivibrator
• When a positive trigger pulse of short duration and sufficient
magnitude is applied to the base of Q1 through C2, transistor Q1
starts conducting and thereby decreasing the voltage at its
collector VC1which is coupled to the base of Q2 through capacitor
C. This decreases the forward bias on Q2 and its collector current
decreases. The increasing positive potential on the collector of Q2
is applied to the base of Q1 through R1. This further increases the
base potential of Q1 and Q1 is quickly driven to saturation and Q2 to
cut-off.
• The capacitor C is charged to approximately +VCC, through the
path VCC, R and Q1. As the capacitor C discharges, the base of Q2 is
forward biased and collector current starts to flow into Q2. Thus
Q2 is quickly driven to saturation and Q1 is cut-off. This is the stable
state for the circuit and remains in this condition until another
trigger pulse causes the circuit to switch over the states.
Monostable Multivibrator
 Monostable Multivibrator
1. The monostable multivibrator is used to function as an adjustable
pulse width generator.
2. It is used to generate uniform width pulses from a variable width
input pulse train.
3. It is used to generate clean and sharp pulses from the distorted
pulses.
4. It is used as a time delay unit since it produces a transition at a fixed
time after the trigger signal.
 Bistable Multivibrator
• The bistable multivibrator is also
referred to as flip-flop, Eccles–Jordan
circuit, trigger circuit or binary.
• It has two stable states. A trigger pulse
applied to the circuit will cause it to
switch from one state to the other.
• Another trigger pulse is then required
to switch the circuit back to its original
state.
• Figure shows the circuit of a bistable multivibrator using two NPN
transistors. In this circuit the output (collector point) of a transistor Q
2

is coupled to the base of transistor Q through a resistor R . Similarly

1 2

the output of Q is coupled to the base of Q through resistor R .

1 2 1

• When abruptly changing pulse is applied to the circuit, the transition

from one state to other should occur instantaneously. The transition
time i.e. the time interval during which conduction transfers from
one transistor to other should be as small as possible.
 Bistable Multivibrator
• The main purpose of capacitors C 1

and C is to improve the switching

2

characteristics of the circuit by

passing the high frequency
components of these square wave
pulses. This allows fast rise and fall
times, so that these square waves
will not be distorted. C and C are
1 2

thus called Commutating

capacitors, speed-up capacitors or
transpose capacitors.
• When the circuit is first switched on, one of the transistors will
start conducting more than the other. This transistor is thus
driven into saturation (i.e. ON). Then, because of the
regenerative feed back action, the other transistor is taken into
cut-off (i.e. OFF) state.
 Bistable Multivibrator
• Let us assume that transistor Q1 is ON and Q2 is OFF. It is a stable
state of the circuit and will remain in this state till a trigger pulse is
applied from outside.
• A positive triggering pulse applied to the reset input (base of Q2)
increases its forward bias, thereby turning transistor Q2 ON and an
increase in collector current and a decrease in collector voltage. The
fall in collector voltage is coupled to the base of Q1, wherein it reverse
biases the base– emitter circuit and Q1 is thus turned OFF. The circuit
is then in its second stable state and remains so till a positive trigger
pulse is applied to set input (base of Q1).
• A similar action can be achieved by applying a negative pulse at the
set input for transition from the first stable state to the second stable
state and by applying a negative pulse at the reset input, reverse
transition can be obtained.
• The waveforms of the bistable multivibrator in response to the trigger
pulses applied to the set and reset input. from these waveforms that
the output waveforms are the complement of each other.
Bistable Multivibrator: Applications
1. The bistable multivibrator is used as memory elements in
shift registers, counters, and so on.
2. It is used to generate square waves of symmetrical shape by
sending regular triggering pulse to the
input. By adjusting the frequency of the input trigger pulse,
the width of the square wave can be
altered.
3. It can also be used as a frequency divider (as a divide by
two counter).