CHAPTER 2

THE CELLULAR CONCEPT- SYSTEM DESIGN

FUNDAMENTALS

1. Explain Cell, Base station, Mobile Switching center, Home Location Register, Visitor
Location Register.
Cell:
A cell is the geographic area that is covered by a single base station in a cellular network.
Key Points:
Coverage Area: Each cell covers a particular area, and these areas collectively form the entire
network's coverage.
Transmitter: A cell has its own radio transmitter, often in the form of a cell tower or base
station, which sends and receives signals.
Frequency Reuse: Cells are strategically placed so that the same frequencies can be reused in
different cells without interference.
Efficiency: Cellular networks use cells to efficiently manage resources and provide widespread
coverage.

In simpler terms, cells are like small service areas within a larger wireless network, making it
possible for you to use your mobile phone or other wireless devices wherever you go, without
losing connection.

Base station(BS):
A base station is a fixed communications location and is part of a network’s wireless
telephone system. It relays information to and from a transmitting/receiving unit, such as a
mobile phone. Often referred to as a cell site, a base station allows mobile phones to work
within a local area, as long as it is linked to a mobile or wireless service provider. A base station
is normally positioned in a location far above the grounded area providing coverage.

The base station is essential for mobile phones to work correctly and optimally. If there
are not enough base stations in an area with too many network subscribers or geographic
interferences, quality of service is greatly affected. In these cases, base stations are located in
areas of closer proximity to subscribers.

Mobile Switching center(MSC):

MSC, or Mobile Switching Center, is a crucial component in a cellular network. Think of it as
the heart of the cellular system. Here's what it does in terms of a cellular system:
Call Routing: MSC is responsible for routing calls. When you make a call or receive one, the
MSC figures out how to connect it. It looks at your location and the location of the person
you're calling and decides which base station or cell should handle the call.
Handover Management: When you're on the move, your call needs to be transferred seamlessly
from one cell to another. The MSC supervises this handover process, ensuring that your call
doesn't drop while you're moving.
Resource Management: MSC manages network resources efficiently. It allocates channels for
calls and data connections, making sure that the available resources are used wisely.
Switching Function: As the name suggests, MSC is a switch. It connects your call to the person
you're calling. It sets up, manages, and tears down connections.
Interconnection: MSC connects the cellular network to the public switched telephone network
(PSTN). This interconnection allows you to call landlines and other mobile networks.
Subscriber Management: MSC keeps track of which subscribers are in its service area. It
manages user profiles, billing information, and call features like call waiting and voicemail.
In essence, MSC is the control center that ensures your calls are properly routed, your data
connections are managed, and your mobility in the cellular network is seamless. It's a critical
part of what makes cellular systems work.

Home Location Register (HLR):

It is a database for managing the mobile subscriber. HLR stores permanent data of
subscriber which include subscribers service profile, location information and its activity. A
home subscriber charges are less then the roaming subscriber.

Visitor Location Register (VLR):

It is a database which consists of temporary information about subscribers which is used
by MSC in order to provide services to visiting subscriber. MSC updates the VLR by
determining which users are in roaming. Once, the roaming mobile information is updated,
then MSC sends necessary information to roaming mobile subscribers so that roaming mobile
call can be properly routed.

2. Why hexagonal cell shape is preferred in cellular architecture?

 A cellular land area in cellular networks refers to the geographical area that is divided
into smaller regions, or cells, each of which is served by a mobile phone base station.
 The size and shape of the cells depend on factors such as the number of users in the
area, the terrain, and the availability of resources.
 The hexagonal shape is preferred in cellular architecture because, it allows for complete
and balanced coverage with minimal overlap, which reduces the number of base
stations required to cover an area.
 The use of hexagons ensures that the cells are as close to circular as possible,
minimizing interference between neighboring cells.
 The use of the hexagonal shape also allows for efficient use of available resources, such
as power and bandwidth, by ensuring that the base stations are evenly distributed
throughout the service area.
These benefits make the hexagonal shape a preferred choice for cellular network design.
Let’s look in detail why the hexagonal shape is preferred in cellular architecture.
The geometrical shape used in a cellular network can be circular, triangular, rectangular, or
hexagonal. But in choosing the shape of the cell to be used, the following criteria are
considered.
1. The cell has to be geometrical.
2. There should be area without overlapping.
3. The area of the cell should be maximum.
 The radiation of radio waves from a mobile phone base station antenna, can be
approximated to be circular.
 Circle as a geometrical shape has a large area and can be used to cover large regions or
cells.
 But the issue is that using a circular shape leads to overlapping or dead spot (which
results in interference and region where signal cannot be received).
 Therefore, it failed one of the criteria, which is “There should be area without
overlapping”.

 When a triangular shape is used, there is minimal to no overlapping, but the area it can
cover compared to that of the circle is 17.7% of the area of the circle.
 For a rectangular shape, there is minimal overlapping and the area it can cover in respect
to the circle is 63.7%.

 When hexagonal is used, it covers about 83% of the area of a circle and there is no
overlapping.
 From all the shapes, it can be seen that hexagon meet most of the criteria because
of its large area.
 The use of hexagons is based on the mathematical principle that hexagons are the
most efficient shape for covering a two-dimensional plane with equal-sized cells,
while minimizing the overlap between neighboring cells.
Using hexagons in a cellular network provides a number of advantages.

 The hexagonal shape allows for complete and balanced coverage with minimal overlap,
reducing the number of base stations required to cover an area.
 The use of hexagons ensures that the cells are as close to circular as possible, which
helps to minimize interference between neighboring cells.
 The hexagonal shape allows for efficient use of available resources, such as power and
bandwidth, by ensuring that the base stations are evenly distributed throughout the
service area.

3. Define Cellular network. Explain it with its architecture.

Cellular Network Definition:
A cellular network is a wireless communication network that uses a system of
interconnected base stations, often referred to as cell towers, to provide wireless coverage to
mobile devices within a geographic area. Cellular networks enable mobile communication by
dividing a region into smaller cells, each served by its own base station. This division allows
for efficient frequency reuse, improved capacity, and seamless mobility for users.

Cellular Network Architecture:

A typical cellular network consists of several key components and layers, each playing a
specific role in enabling wireless communication.
Here's an overview of the architecture:
Mobile Devices (User Equipment - UE): Mobile devices, such as smartphones, tablets, and
laptops, are the endpoints of the cellular network. They communicate wirelessly with nearby
base stations to make voice calls, send text messages, and access data services.
Base Stations (Cell Towers): Base stations, also known as cell towers or cell sites, are
strategically located throughout the coverage area. Each base station serves a specific
geographic area called a cell. These stations transmit and receive signals to and from mobile
devices within their respective cells.
Cell: A cell is the basic geographic unit of a cellular network. It represents the coverage area
of a single base station. Cells are typically designed in a hexagonal pattern to ensure uniform
coverage and efficient frequency reuse.
Base Station Controller (BSC): In older cellular network generations (2G and 2.5G), the BSC
manages and controls multiple base stations. It handles tasks such as call setup, handovers, and
resource allocation. In modern networks, BSC functions are often integrated into other network
elements.
Mobile Switching Center (MSC): The MSC is a central component responsible for call routing,
call handovers, and management of resources in the network. It connects calls within the
cellular network and interfaces with the public switched telephone network (PSTN) for external
calls.
Home Location Register (HLR): The HLR is a database that stores subscriber information,
including subscriber profiles, authentication data, and current location. It plays a crucial role
in call routing and call delivery to the appropriate mobile device.
Visitor Location Register (VLR): The VLR is a temporary database that stores information
about mobile devices currently within the jurisdiction of a particular MSC. It helps in tracking
the location of mobile devices and speeding up call setup.
Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN): The PSTN is the traditional landline telephone
network. The cellular network interfaces with the PSTN to enable calls between mobile devices
and landline phones.

How Cellular Networks Work:

Call Setup: When a mobile device initiates a call, the cellular network determines the
appropriate cell and base station to handle the call. The MSC plays a central role in call setup.
Handovers: As a mobile device moves, it may transition from one cell to another. Handovers
ensure that the call remains uninterrupted as the device roams between cells.
Resource Allocation: The network allocates radio resources, such as frequency channels and
time slots, to each active call. This allocation ensures that multiple calls can occur
simultaneously within a cell without interference.
Subscriber Authentication: Before establishing a call, the network authenticates the mobile
device's identity to ensure it is a valid subscriber and has the right to access the network.
Location Tracking: The VLR keeps track of the mobile device's current location within the
network, allowing the network to efficiently route incoming calls and messages.
Data Services: In addition to voice calls, cellular networks provide data services, including
mobile internet access. Data traffic is routed through the network's data infrastructure,
including evolved packet core (EPC) components.
In summary, cellular networks use a hierarchical architecture comprising cells, base stations,
and core network elements like MSC, HLR, and VLR to enable wireless communication. The
hexagonal cell shape is preferred due to its efficient coverage and frequency reuse properties,
optimizing network capacity. These networks provide voice and data services to mobile
devices, offering seamless connectivity while users move within the network's coverage area.

4. Explain cellular hierarchy.

Cellular networks are organized into a hierarchical structure to provide wireless
coverage efficiently and manage network resources effectively. This hierarchy includes various
cell sizes, from small cells like femtocells and picocells to larger ones like microcells,
macrocells, and occasionally mega cells. Here's an explanation of each cell type in the cellular
hierarchy:

Femtocells:
 Size: Very small, typically covering a range of a few meters to tens of meters.
 Use Case: Femtocells are used indoors, such as in homes or small offices, to improve
indoor cellular coverage and capacity.
 Deployment: They are typically deployed by end-users and connected to the internet,
providing a personal cellular network within a small area.
 Example: A homeowner may install a femtocell to enhance mobile coverage within
their house.
Picocells:
 Size: Larger than femtocells, with a coverage range of around 200 meters to a few
kilometers.
 Use Case: Picocells are often used in indoor environments, like shopping malls,
airports, or corporate offices, to boost coverage and capacity in specific areas.
 Deployment: These cells are typically deployed by organizations or service providers
to address localized coverage needs.
 Example: An airport might have picocells installed in different terminals to provide
strong and reliable cellular service.
Microcells:
 Size: Larger than picocells, covering a range of a few kilometers.
 Use Case: Microcells are commonly used in urban areas, providing coverage for
neighborhoods or small sections of a city.
 Deployment: Telecommunications companies deploy microcells on lampposts,
rooftops, or dedicated structures to densify network coverage in urban regions.
  Example: Microcells may be scattered throughout a city to ensure continuous
connectivity for residents and commuters.
Macrocells:

 Size: Significantly larger than microcells, with a range of several kilometers to tens of
kilometers.
 Use Case: Macrocells are the primary cellular coverage layers, serving larger areas like
suburbs, towns, or rural regions.
 Deployment: These cells are often mounted on tall towers or structures to provide
broad-area coverage.
 Example: A network operator might deploy macrocells across a region to cover towns
and highways.
Megacells (Occasional):
 Size: Extremely large cells, covering ranges of hundreds of kilometers or more.
 Use Case: Megacells are rare and typically used in remote and sparsely populated areas
where establishing traditional cell sites would be challenging.
 Deployment: They require unique considerations due to their extensive coverage area
and are not commonly used in most cellular networks.
 Example: Megacells might be used in remote wilderness areas to provide essential
connectivity in emergencies.
The cellular hierarchy allows network operators to efficiently manage network resources,
optimize coverage, and handle varying traffic demands across different geographical areas.
Smaller cells provide higher capacity and better coverage in densely populated or indoor
locations, while larger cells cover broader areas efficiently. The combination of cell types
ensures that cellular networks can meet the diverse connectivity needs of users in various
environments.

5. Explain the concept of frequency reuse in cellular system.

Frequency reuse is a fundamental concept in cellular systems that allows for the
efficient utilization of the limited radio spectrum available for wireless communication. It is a
strategy that enables multiple cells within a cellular network to use the same set of radio
frequencies without causing interference. This concept is crucial for optimizing the capacity
and performance of cellular networks. Here's how frequency reuse works:
Cellular Network Division:
 A geographic region is divided into multiple cells, each served by a base station or cell
tower. These cells collectively cover the entire service area of the network.
Frequency Allocation:
 The available radio frequency spectrum is divided into multiple frequency bands or
channels. These channels are allocated to individual cells within the network.
Reuse Pattern:
 The frequency allocation is carefully planned so that neighboring cells use different frequency
channels. The idea is to minimize interference between adjacent cells.
Frequency Reuse Distance:
 The distance between cells using the same frequency channels is known as the "reuse
distance" or "co-channel distance." The reuse distance is determined based on the
network's design and the desired level of interference control.
Pattern Repeats:
 The pattern of frequency reuse is repeated throughout the cellular network. In other
words, the same set of frequency channels is reused in a systematic pattern across
multiple cells.
Interference Minimization:

 By ensuring that neighboring cells use different frequency channels, interference

between them is minimized. This allows multiple cells to operate simultaneously
without significantly degrading the quality of communication.
Advantages:
 Improved Spectral Efficiency: By reusing the same frequency in different geographic
areas, spectral efficiency can be improved, enabling more efficient spectrum usage.
 Better Quality of Service: With the ability to reuse the same frequency in different cells,
the interference between cells can be minimized, leading to better quality of service.
 Cost-Effective: Frequency reuse can reduce the cost of building a cellular network since
fewer frequency bands are required.
 Scalability: Frequency reuse enables the network to be easily scaled by adding more
cells as needed.
 Increased Network Capacity: Frequency reuse allows more cells to be served with the
same amount of spectrum, resulting in increased network capacity.
 Scalability: Frequency reuse enables the network to be easily scaled by adding more
cells as needed.

6. Explain Frequency re-use factor.

Frequency Channels are resources which service providers should manage efficiently. It is
necessary that maximum area should be covered or maximum number of users are served with
the limited frequency spectrum. One of the most important techniques to ensure this is
Frequency reuse concept.
The design process of selecting and allocating channel groups for all of the cellular base
stations within a system is called frequency planning. The same set of frequency is reused after
a specific distance to ensure increase in capacity and coverage.

In Figure, all cells marked as ‘Cell 1’ will be allotted the same group of channels. i.e. cells
which have been given the same number in the diagram have the same group of channels. Cells
which have been allotted the same group of frequency channels are called Co-channel cells.
Cells 1-Cell 7 have unique channels and there are no repetitions. Group of cells in which every
channel is unique is called as a Cluster.
Since co-channel cells use the same set of channels, there is always possibility of
interference in these cells. Interference between the co-channel cells is called as Co-channel
interference. There should be a minimum Distance after which the same channel can be reused
with minimum interference. This distance is called as Minimum safe distance and is given by,

Where N is the Cluster size and R is the Radius of each cell.

The number of cells after which a frequency channel can be reused is called as the
Frequency reuse factor (R.F). It is given by R.F=1/N, Where N is the cluster size.
 If D is the minimum safe distance and R is the radius of each cell, then the ratio of D/R
is termed as Reuse factor Q and is given by

The Reuse Factor Q has a very important significance in deciding the capacity improvement
techniques.

7. Explain channel assignment strategies.

Channel Allocation means to allocate the available channels to the cells in a cellular system. When a
user wants to make a call request then by using channel allocation strategies their requests are fulfilled.
Channel Allocation Strategies are designed in such a way that there is efficient use of frequencies, time
slots and bandwidth.

Types of Channel Allocation Strategies:

These are Fixed, Dynamic, Hybrid Channel Allocation and Borrowing Channel Allocation as explained
as following below.

Fixed Channel Allocation (FCA):

Fixed Channel Allocation is a strategy in which fixed number of channels or voice channels are allocated
to the cells. Once the channels are allocated to the specific cells then they cannot be changed. In FCA
channels are allocated in a manner that maximize Frequency reuse.

In cell A 20 Channels or Voice channels are allocated. If all channels are occupied and user make a call
then the call is blocked. Borrowing Channels handles this type of problem. This cell borrow channels
from other cells.

 Advantages :
1. Simple to implement and manage
2. Does not require complex equipment or algorithms
 Disadvantages :
1. Limited channel utilization as unused channels remain unused.
2. Susceptible to interference and congestion.
Dynamic Channel Allocation (DCA):
Dynamic Channel allocation is a strategy in which channels are not permanently allocated to the cells.
When a User makes a call request then Base Station (BS) send that request to the Mobile Station Center
(MSC) for the allocation of channels or voice channels. This way the likelihood of blocking calls is
reduced. As traffic increases more channels are assigned and vice-versa.

 Advantages :
1. Efficient use of available bandwidth.
2. Reduces call blocking and improves call quality.
3. Allows for dynamic allocation of resources.

 Disadvantages :
1. Requires more complex equipment and algorithms.
2. May result in call drops or poor quality if resources are not available

Hybrid Channel Allocation (HCA):

Hybrid Channel Allocation is a combination of both Fixed Channel Allocation (FCA) and Dynamic
Channel Allocation (DCA). The total number of channels or voice channels are divided into fixed and
dynamic set. When a user make a call then first fixed set of channels are utilized but if all the fixed sets
are busy then dynamic sets are used. The main purpose of HCA is to work efficiently under heavy traffic
and to maintain a minimum S/I.

 Advantages :
1. Provides the benefits of both FCA and DCA.
2. Allows for dynamic allocation of resources while maintaining predictable call quality and
reliability.

 Disadvantages :
1. Requires more complex equipment and algorithms than FCA.
2. May not provide the same level of efficiency as pure DCA.

Borrowing Channel Allocation (BCA):

When a cell experiences high traffic demand and all of its channels are occupied, it can borrow channels
from neighboring cells that are not being used at that time. The borrowed channels are assigned to the
busy cell and are used to support the additional traffic demand. Once the demand subsides, the borrowed
channels are released and returned to their home cell. BCA can be implemented manually or
automatically using algorithms or policies but the main disadvantage is that if the borrowed channel is
reclaimed by the original cell the call drop may occur.

 Advantages :
1. Efficient use of available bandwidth.
2. Reduces call blocking and improves call quality.

 Disadvantages :
1. Increases interference between cells.
2. Can cause call drops if borrowed channels are reclaimed by the home cell.
8. Difference between Fixed Channel Allocation and Dynamic Channel Allocation.

Key Fixed Channel Allocation(FCA) Dynamic Channel Allocation

(DCA)

Cells are given a fixed number of Cells are not given a fixed number of
Channel channels or voice channels. channels. The number of channels to
Allocation be allotted to each cells is not fixed
initially.

If all the channels are occupied, If all the channels are blocked, then
then user call is blocked. the Base Station (BS) requests more
Blockage
channels from the Mobile Switching
Center (MSC).

Since the cellular channels are Frequency reuse is not maximum

Frequency separated by the shortest possible because of random channel
Usage distance, frequency reuse is allocation.
maximized.

Complex algorithms are not To determine which accessible

utilized in FCA. channel is the most efficient, DCA
Algorithm
uses complex and sophisticated
algorithms.

FCA is less expensive than DCA. DCA is costly as it requires real-time

Cost
computation.

Once a call is finished in FCA, the When a call is concluded in DCA, the
Cell
cell retains the assigned channels. channel or voice channel is returned
Allocation
to the MSC.

The MSC has less burden to The MSC in case of DCA has high
MSC handle in case of FCA. signal load, and has more
responsibilities.

9. What is Interference?
Interference in the context of the cellular concept refers to the unwanted signals or
electromagnetic waves that disrupt the proper functioning of a cellular network. It is a common
challenge in wireless communication systems, and managing interference is crucial to
maintaining the quality and efficiency of the network.

Sources of interference are as follows:

 Another mobile in the same cell.
 Ongoing call in neighbor’s cell
  When a different Base Station operates on the same frequency.
Types of channels on which interference is present are-
On Voice Channel: leads to crosstalk which is an interference or background noise while we
are talking to another person on mobile. Crosstalk is unwanted interference that should be
minimized.
On Control Channel: It can lead to problems in creating a connection between the sender and
receiver during a call which leads to missed calls. Calls may terminate abruptly known as
blocked calls.
Interference causes the above two problems because it reduces the channel capacity and thus,
affects the performance.

10. Explain types of Interference.

1. Co-Channel Interference:
Co-channel cells are those cells that use the same frequency in a given coverage area.
Interference from these cells is called co-channel interference. In co-channel interference, the
cells are clustered as close together as possible to reduce the co-channel interface and provide
sufficient isolation. Increasing the co-channel reuse ratio improves the transmission quality
because of the smaller level of co-channel interference. An example of co-channel interference
is when a radio transmitter is operating on the same frequency.

The reasons behind Co-channel interference are:

 Bad weather condition
 Poor frequency planning
Ways we can reduce co-channel interference in cellular communication are:
 Proper planning and implementation.
  The frequency reuse technique increases overall system capacity.

2. Adjacent Channel Interference

It is the interference caused to the signal which is adjacent in frequency to the desired
signal. Imperfect receiver side filters allow the neighboring signal to mix with the actual pass
band. if adjacent channel signal strength becomes strong, it will be difficult for Base Station to
differentiate the actual mobile signal from the strong mobile signal.
The reasons behind adjacent channel interference are as follows:
 Due to multiple channels close to each other communicating using similar frequencies.
 Irrelevant power emission from an adjacent channel.

Factors for reducing Adjacent Channel Interference are as follows:

 Proper filtering
 Careful Channel Assignments
 By managing the space between two adjacent cells which should remain constant.

11. What is S/I Ratio (Signal to Interference Ratio)?

S/I Ratio measures signal quality: the strength of the wanted signal compared to the unwanted
interference and noise. Mobile network operators seek to maximize S/I Ratio at all sites to
deliver the best possible customer experience, either by transmitting at a higher power, or by
minimizing the interference and noise.

Thus, optimizing S/I ratio leads to more base station capacity, resulting in higher peak data
rates, fewer dropped calls, and ultimately improved customer satisfaction.
 S/I Ratio= Signal Power/ Interference Power
12. Illustration of how 120 degree sectoring reduces interference from co-channel cells.
Out of the 6 co-channel cells in the first tier, only 2 of them interfere with the center
cell. If Omni-directional antennas were used at each base station, all 6 co-channel
cells would interfere with the center cell.
120-degree sectoring is a cellular network design technique where the coverage area of
each base station (cell) is divided into three equal sectors, each covering an angle of 120
degrees. This approach is used to manage interference and improve the overall performance of
the cellular network.

To illustrate how 120-degree sectoring reduces interference from co-channel cells, we can use
the following explanation:
When using omni-directional antennas at each base station, the signals transmitted from
neighboring co-channel cells propagate in all directions. Therefore, all 6 co-channel cells
surrounding the center cell would interfere with it.
However, by implementing 120-degree sectoring, we effectively divide the coverage area of
each cell into three sectors. This means that out of the 6 co-channel cells in the first tier
(surrounding the center cell), only 2 of them interfere with the center cell.
This reduction in interference occurs because each co-channel cell transmits its signals within
its designated 120-degree sector, and the other two sectors do not overlap with the center cell's
sector. This sectoring strategy helps minimize interference and improve the overall
performance of the cellular network.
In summary, the use of 120-degree sectoring reduces interference from co-channel cells,
allowing for more efficient and interference-free communication within the cellular network.
13. Explain Handoff strategies in Cellular System.
In cellular System, the terms handover or handoff refers to the process of transferring an
ongoing call or data connectivity from one Base Station to another Base Station. When a mobile
moves into a different cell while the conversation is in progress then the MSC (Mobile
Switching Center) transfers the call to a new channel belonging to the new Base Station.

When a mobile user A moves from one cell to another cell then BSC 1 signal strength loses for
the mobile User A and the signal strength of BSC 2 increases and thus ongoing calls or data
connectivity for mobile users goes on without interrupting.

Types of Handoff:

1. Hard Handoff
When there is an actual break in the connectivity while switching from one Base Station to
another Base Station. There is no burden on the Base Station and MSC because the switching
takes place so quickly that it can hardly be noticed by the users. The connection quality is not
that good. Hard Handoff adopted the ‘break before make’ policy.
It is generally implemented in Time Division Multiplexing and Frequency Division
Multiplexing when a user connects to the base station with a fluctuating radio frequency.
Hard Handoff is cheaper in cost as compared to soft Handoff because only one channel needs
to be active at a time. It is more efficient than soft handoff, that’s why hard handoffs are widely
implemented. Sometimes, a delay can be experienced while switching base stations.
2. Soft Handoff
Soft Handoff is a mechanism in which the device gets connected with two or more base stations
at the same time. At least one of the links is kept when radio signals are added or removed to
the Base Station. Soft Handoff adopted the ‘make before break’ policy. If a channel is in power
loss then another channel will always be on standby mode so this makes it best in terms of
quality as compared to Hard handoff. Soft handoffs are used in devices supporting
CDMA/WDMA networks
High Transmission speed as more than one repeater can transmit signals. It has a very low delay
in signals. It can’t be implemented on devices supporting GSM or LTE networks.

3. Forced Handoff
A Forced Handoff can occur in two ways, either by forcing a handoff to occur or forcibly
preventing a handoff that was supposed to happen from not happening. This could be done
when the number of users exceeds the capacity of the network. Helps in mobility management
by controlling which devices are to remain connected. Prevents the network from the threat of
being down due to congestion but Increased chances of high latency and dropped calls.

4. Delayed Handoff
Delayed handoff occurs when no base station is available for accepting the transfer. The call
continues until the signal strength reaches a threshold, and after that, the call is dropped.
Generally, it happens when the user is out of the network coverage area, or at some dead spots
where network reach is very low.
14. Define: (1) Control Channel (2) Dwell time (3) Full Duplex Systems

(1) Control Channel:

A separate line or communications channel that carries only control codes and not data. For
example, in a cellular system, control channels set up and break down calls as well as monitor
phone location, assign frequencies and switch cells. See handoff, channel coding and control
code.
(2) Dwell time
The time over which a call is maintained within a cell without handoff is called as dwell time.
The dwell time of a particular user is governed by a number of factors like propagation,
interference, distance between the subscriber and the base station and the other time varying
factors.

(3) Full Duplex Systems

Full-duplex data transmission means that data can be transmitted in both directions on a signal
carrier at the same time. For example, on a local area network with a technology that has full-
duplex transmission, one workstation can be sending data on the line while another workstation
is receiving data. Full-duplex transmission implies a bidirectional line that can move data in
both directions simultaneously.

15. Mention the techniques to improve the capacity in cellular system / Clarify how we increase
cluster size and cell capacity in cellular network.
There is a performance criterion of cellular mobile systems like:
a) Voice quality.
b) Service Quality like coverage and quality of service.
c) Number of Dropped calls.
d) Special features like call forwarding, call diverting, call barring.
As the demand for wireless service increases, the number of channels assigned to cell becomes
insufficient to support required number of users. At this point, cellular design techniques are
needed to provide more channels per unit coverage area. There are 3 techniques for improving
cell capacity in cellular system, namely:
1) CELL SPLITTING:
It is process of subdividing a congested cell into smaller cells, each with its own base station
and a corresponding reduction in antenna height and transmitter power. Cell splitting increases
capacity of cellular system since it increases number of times that channels are reused, it
preserves frequency reuse plan. It defines new cells which have smaller radius than original
cells and by installing these smaller cells called microcells between existing cells, that is radius
will be half of the original cell. Thus capacity increases due to additional number of channels
per unit area, but does not disturb the channel allocation scheme required to maintain the
minimum co-channel reuse ratio Q between co-channel cells.

2) SECTORING:

This is another method to increase cellular capacity and coverage by keeping cell radius
unchanged and decreasing D/R ratio.
In this approach, capacity improvement is achieved by reducing the number of cells in a
cluster and thus increasing the frequency reuse.
The co-channel interference in a cellular system may be decreased by replacing a single
Omni-directional antenna at the base station by several directional antennas, each radiating
within a specified sector.
The factor by which the co-channel interference is reduced depends on the amount of
sectoring used.

a) 120 degree sectoring b) 60 degree sectoring

Advantages:
  Improvement in Signal capacity.
 Improvement in signal to interference ratio.
 Increases frequency reuse.

Disadvantages:
 Increase in number of handoffs.
 Increase in number of antenna at each base station.
3) COVERAGE ZONE/ MICROCELL ZONE CONCEPT:

 This approach was presented by Lee to solve the problem of an increased load on the
switching and control link elements of the mobile system due to sectoring.
 It is based on a microcell concept for 7 cell reuse.
 In this scheme, each of the three zone sites are connected to a single base station and
share the same radio equipment.
 Multiple zones and a single base station make up a cell. As a mobile travels within the
cell, it is served by the zone with the strongest signal.
 This approach is superior to sectoring since antennas are placed at the outer edges of
the cell, and any base station channel may be assigned to any zone by the base station.

16. Explain Umbrella cell approach.

The smaller cell is grouped and assumed to be under a large cell. This method called as an
umbrella cell concept. It can be used to provide a large area to high-speed users while small
area coverage to users that travel at low speeds. By using different antenna heights [often in
the same building or tower] And different power levels, it is possible to provide large and
small cells which are co-located at a single location. This technique is called umbrella cell
approach.

The umbrella cell approach is used to provide large area coverage to high speed users while
providing small area coverage to users travelling at low speeds. This ensures that the number of
handoffs are minimized for high speed users while at same time additional micro cell channels
are provided for pedestrian users.
 Some advantages of using an umbrella cell concept in cellular technology:

 Umbrella cell provides a large coverage area to high-speed users.

 Minimize the number of handoff for high-speed users.


17. Give proper reason of difference between co-channel interference and adjust channel
interference.

Feature Co-Channel Interference Adjacent Channel Interference

Definition Occurs when two or more cells use the Occurs when signals from channels
same frequency within a given area, close in frequency to the desired signal
causing interference due to overlapping interfere with each other due to
signals. imperfect filtering.
Causes - Bad weather conditions - Multiple channels close together using
- Poor frequency planning similar frequencies
- Irrelevant power emission from an
adjacent channel
Reduction - Proper planning and implementation - Proper filtering
Techniques - Increasing co-channel reuse ratio - Careful channel assignments
- Managing space between adjacent
cells
Focus Frequency reuse planning to minimize Ensuring effective filtering and
overlap and interference. adequate frequency separation to avoid
overlap.

18. Define following terms: (1) Page, (2) Half-duplex systems, (3) Roamer, (4) Transceiver.

1. Page:

A Page in wireless communication refers to a message sent by a cellular network to locate and alert a
mobile device. When a call or message is incoming, the network sends a page to the device across all
cells in the area where it might be located. This allows the network to establish a connection with the
device for communication.

2. Half-Duplex Systems:

Half-Duplex Systems are communication systems where data transmission occurs in both directions, but
not simultaneously. At any given time, a device can either send or receive data, but not both. This method
is often used in walkie-talkies and push-to-talk communication systems, where one person talks while
the other listens.
3. Roamer:

A Roamer is a mobile device or user who is outside the coverage area of their home network and is using
another network's service to maintain connectivity. Roaming allows users to continue receiving calls,
messages, and data services when traveling beyond their home network's range, typically involving
agreements between different network providers.

4. Transceiver:

A Transceiver is a device that can both transmit and receive signals, commonly used in wireless
communication systems. It combines the functions of a transmitter and a receiver into a single unit,
allowing for efficient and compact communication devices such as radios, mobile phones, and other
wireless devices.

19. A spectrum of 33 MHz is allocated to a wireless FDD cellular system which uses two 25 kHz
simplex channels to provide full duplex voice and control channels. Compute the number of
channels available per cell if a system uses (i) 4-cell reuse (ii) 7- cell reuse and (iii) 12-cell reuse.

Frequency reuse

1) It is the design process of selecting andallocating channel groups for all of thecellular base stations
within the system.

2) Consider a cellular system that has a totalof S duplex channel

3) If each channel allocated a group of kchannels (k < S) and

4) If S channels are divided among N cellsinto the unique and disjoint group.

5) Then, the total number of radio channelavailable can be expressed as S = Kn

Cluster size (N) = 4

Total bandwidth = 33 MHz

Channel bandwidth = 25 kHz x 2 simplexchannel

Channel bandwidth = 50 kHz/duplex channel

Total available channels = (33,000 x 103)/(50x 103)

Total available channels = 660 channels

Total number of available channel per cell =(Total available channels)/N

(i) 4-cell reuse

Total number of available channel per cell= 660/4

Total number of available channel per cell =165

(ii) 7- cell reuse

Total number of available channel per cell= 660/7
Total number of available channel per cell = 94
(iii) 12-cell reuse.
Total number of available channel per cell= 660/12
Total number of available channel per cell = 55

20. Prove that for a hexagonal symmetry, the co-channel reuse ratio is given by Q = (3N)1/2.
Where, N = i2+ ij + j2 .