Issues and Trends in Language Teaching and
Learning
Teaching and Learning Grammar
Historically, grammar has been considered to be (Hinkel & Fotos, 2002):
Nouns Pronouns
Verbs Prepositions
Participles Adverbs
Articles Conjunction
1. What is grammar?
- Not a discrete set of meaningless decontextualized or static structure
- It’s a prescriptive rule about linguistic form
- Misunderstood in that
* Myth: Grammar structures are meaningless forms
*Myth: Grammar acquisition consists of arbitrary rules
*Myth: Grammar structures are learned one at a time
*Myth: Grammar is acquired naturally, and doesn’t have to be taught
*Myth: Error correction and negative evidence might be unnecessary when
instructing grammar
*Myth: All grammatical structures are learned in the same way
3 options in teaching English:
Focus in Forms – parts of the language are taught separately and step by
step so acquisition is a process of gradual accumulation of parts until the
whole structure of language has been built up
Focus on Meaning – people of all ages learn language best not by treating
the language as objects of study but by experiencing them as a medium
of communication
Focus on Use – overtly draws the students’ attention to linguistic elements
as they arise incidentally in lessons whose overriding focus is on meaning
or communication
Arguments against Grammar Instruction:
- Study of grammar promotes knowledge about language
- Not how to use language
- We acquire our first language w/o any explicit knowledge of grammar
- Natural order in which languages are learned precludes the influence of
instructions
- If communicative competence is the goal
Arguments for Grammar Instructions:
- Without explicit instruction learners’ interlanguage often fossilizes
- Grammar instruction may act as an advanced organizer helping learners
to notice features of language when they are ready.
- Learning finite rules can help
Approaches to Teaching Grammar
Deductive Approach = teaching through rules
Inductive Approach = teaching through examples;
Action Research
1. Planning phase
2. Acting phase
3. Observing phase – educators collect data on the effectiveness of the
intervention; might be qualitative or quantitative; goal is to gather evidence
4. Reflecting phase – analyzing the collected data; identify strengths,
weaknesses, and areas for improvement; this helps refine the research
questions, modify intervention
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1. Identify the problem – identify a specific issue or area for improvement within
your classroom or school
2. Develop a research question – formulate a clear and focused research
question that guides your inquiry
3. Design an intervention – plan and design a strategy or intervention that aims
to address the identified problem
4. Collect data – choose appropriate methods for collecting data on the
effectiveness of the intervention
5. Analyze and reflect – analyze the collected data to draw conclusions about
the impact of your intervention
6. Adjust and iterate – adjust your intervention or develop new strategies for
future action
Benefits of Action Research
1. Empowerment and Participation – empowers educators to take ownership of
their professional development and become active agents in improving their
teaching practices
2. Contextual relevance – deeply rooted in the specific context of the classroom;
focuses on localized problems
3. Continuous improvement – a
4. Professional development – provides teachers with valuable opportunities
Examples of Action Research in Education
Improving Reading Engagement – a teacher observes students are
struggling with reading comprehension and engagement; she implements
a new strategy incorporating interactive activities, graphic organizers, and
discussion groups
Developing Collaborative Learning – a
Enhancing Student Motivation – there is a decline in student motivation
Impact of Action Research on Education
Enhanced Teaching Practices
Collaboration and Sharing
Student-Centered Learning
Research-Based Culture
Key Considerations
Ethics and Informed Consent – obtaining informed consent from participants,
protecting their anonymity, and using data responsibly
Data Collection and Analysis – choose appropriate data collection methods
based on their research question and context; includes observations,
interviews, surveys, student work samples, or performance data
Reflexivity and Bias – action research is inherently subjective and may be
influenced by researcher bias; engage in critical self-reflection to
acknowledge and address potential biases
Dissemination of Findings – share the findings of your action research with
colleagues, administrators, and the wider educational community; this can
contribute to knowledge sharing, collaboration, and the improvement of
teaching practices across schools and districts
Minimum Requirements of Completed Action Research
Chapter 1: Title Page
Abstract
Acknowledgment
Context and Rationale
Action Research Questions
Chapter 2: Innovation, Intervention, and Strategy
Chapter 3: Action Research Methodology:
a. Participants and/or Sources of Information
b. Data Gathering Methods
c. Data Analysis
Chapter 4: Discussion of Results and Reflection
Chapter 5: Action Research Work Plan
References
Financial Report
Meta-Analysis: Synthesizing Research for Evidence-Based
Conclusions
Meta-Analysis is a statistical technique that combines the results of multiple studies
to draw a more robust conclusion about a research question. It plays a crucial role
in aggregating and synthesizing research findings across multiple studies. A well-
executed meta-analysis provides a comprehensive understanding of a topic by
aggregating data from individual studies, thus enhancing
Steps Involved
1. Defining Research Questions –
2. Systematic Literature Search – conducted using multiple databases and
search terms to identify all relevant studies on the topic
3. Data Extraction and Coding – a
4. Statistical Analysis – a
Benefits
1. Increased Statistical Power
2. Reduced Risk of Type I and Type II Errors
3. Objective Assessment
Addressing Biases
1. Publication Bias – studies with significant findings are more likely to be
published potentially leading to an overestimation of the true effect size
2. Funnel Plot – a
3. Sensitivity Analysis – a
Limitations
1. Publication Bias
2. Quality of Included Studies
3. Generalizability – findings may not always be generalizable to all populations
or contexts as studies included may be limited in scope
Literature Review: A Scholarly Academic Research
A literature review is a comprehensive and critical examination of the
existing body of research on a specific topic, research questions, or
problem. It involves summarizing, synthesizing, and critically evaluating the
relevant studies, theories, methodologies, and findings.
1. Narrative Literature Review – provides a broad overview of the research
on a particular topic, synthesizing the key findings without focusing on
methodological rigor or systematic
2. Systematic Literature Review – follows a structured and predefined
methodology to identify, evaluate, and synthesize the body of research on a
particular topic; aim is to minimize bias and
3. Scoping Review – used to map the existing literature on a topic; typically
helps identify key concepts, theories, and types of evidence without
assessing the quality of the studies; goal is to provide an overview of the
extent and nature of the research, highlight research gaps, ad inform future
research
4. Critical Literature Review – it critically analyzes and evaluates the
methods, results, and conclusions of the studies reviewed; often identifies
biases, inconsistencies
5. Integrative Literature Review – synthesizes research across diverse
methodological approaches to provide a comprehensive understanding of a
topic; integrates findings from multiple perspectives, offering a unified
framework or theory; particularly useful when the research area is
multifaceted or interdisciplinary
6. Meta-Analysis – statistical technique used to synthesize results from
multiple studies to arrive at a single, quantitative conclusion; often used in
systematic reviews to provide a more precise estimate of effect sizes or
relationships between variables
