FUNDAMENTALS OF DATA COMMUNICATION

LECTURE NOTES

2024/2025 ACADEMIC YEAR

FIRST SEMESTER

Compiled By:
Dennis Redeemer Korda
dkorda@bolgatu.edu.gh
[Dip. Cyber Sec. |Dip. VB Prog. |Dip. Py Prog |B.Sc. Comp. Sci. |M. Ed Maths |M.Phil. Comp. Sci. |CEH |MBCS]
Dept. of CIT, BTU

TABLE OF CONTENTS

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COURSE OUTLINE....................................................................................................................................................3
Unit 1: Introduction to Data and Information...........................................................................................................5
1.1 Data........................................................................................................................................5
1.2 Information............................................................................................................................5
1.3 Why Data and Information Are Critical................................................................................7
Unit 2: Fundamentals of data communication and characteristics..........................................................................8
2.1 Characteristics of Data Communication................................................................................8
2.2 Real-Life Scenarios...............................................................................................................9
3.3 Impact of Data Communication.............................................................................................9
Unit 3: Components of data communication............................................................................................................11
3.1 The Components..................................................................................................................11
3.2 How These Components Work Together............................................................................14
Unit 4: Data representations, Encoding and Communication Technique.............................................................15
4.1 Data Representation.............................................................................................................15
4.2 Data Encoding.....................................................................................................................16
4.3 Communication Techniques................................................................................................17
4.4 Scenarios of Data Representation, Encoding, and Communication Techniques.................18
Unit 5: Data flows such as simplex, half duplex and full duplex............................................................................19
5.1 Simplex Data Flow..............................................................................................................19
5.2 Half-Duplex Data Flow.......................................................................................................20
5.3 Full-Duplex Data Flow........................................................................................................20
5.4 Comparison & Application..................................................................................................20
Unit 6: Protocols and Elements of Protocols............................................................................................................22
6.1 What Are Protocols?............................................................................................................22
6.2 Elements of Protocols..........................................................................................................22
6.3 Types of Protocols...............................................................................................................23
Unit 7: The OSI standardization model....................................................................................................................26
7.1 Overview of the OSI Model................................................................................................26
7.2 Importance of the OSI Model..............................................................................................29

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 COURSE OUTLINE
DCN112: FUNDAMENTALS OF DATA COMMUNICATION 3CREDITS

Course Description
It aims This course exposes the student to the principles of data communication and covers
fundamental topics such as data, information and signals, data communication, the Open
Systems Interconnection (OSI) Model and communication Protocols. The main objective is to
provide an understanding to students about the seamless concepts of exchanging data between
any two points in the world over a medium.

Course Objectives
At the end of this course, students should;
▪ Understand the basics of data and information
▪ Demonstrate an understanding of Data communication
▪ Apply their knowledge in Data flow
▪ Understand Protocols and elements of protocols
▪ Be familiar with Data & Signals such as analog and digital signals as well as channels.
▪ Have insights to the concept of bandwidth especially bandwidth of signal and medium.
▪ Explain various transmission impairments
▪ Learn of the OSI model and be able to describe the seven Layers in the OSI Model

Expected Outcomes:
At the end of the course, students will be able to:
▪ Differentiate between data and information
▪ Describe the data communication and its characteristics.
▪ Explain the various elements of a data communication system
▪ Demonstrate strong understanding of data representation, encoding systems and
communication methods.
▪ Understand data flow directions and transmission impairments
▪ Explain the various protocols in the OSI layered model
Mode of Delivery
▪ Lectures and Practical

Summary of Course Content

▪ Introduction to Data and Information
Fundamentals of data communication and characteristics
▪ Components of data communication
▪ Data representations, Encoding and Communication Technique
▪ Data flows such as simplex, half duplex and full duplex
▪ Protocols and elements of protocols
▪ The OSI standardization model

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Assessments:
Assessment Task Expected Number % Of Final Marks
Attendance & Participation (One Random Checks 5%
Unexcused Absenteeism)
Quizzes 5 5%
Assignments/Presentations 4 10%
Mid Semester Exam 1 20%
Final Exam 1 60%

Class Policy
 The university’s policy on attendance will be followed.
 All cell phones must be on silence and NOT on vibration
 Above 5 minutes of lateness will not be tolerated
 All assignments must be submitted on time.
N/B: All Assignments submitted after the DEADLINE will not be graded

Reading lists:
▪ Gallo, M. A., & Hancock, W. M. (2002). Computer communications and networking
technologies. Brooks/Cole Publishing Co..Gallo and William M. Hancock, Thomson Asia,
Second Reprint, 2002.
▪ Forouzan, B. A. (2007). Data communications and networking. Huga Media.
▪ Communications Networks, Leon Garcia, and Widjaja, Tata McGraw- Hill, 1999.
▪ Computer Networking, J. F. Kurose & K. W. Ross, A Top Down Approach Featuring the
Internet, Pearson Edition, 2003.

WARNING!

 All demonstrations during lectures are ONLY for educational

purposes.
 I will NOT be responsible for your ACTIONS.

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 Unit 1: Introduction to Data and Information
Data communication is the exchange of information between devices through a medium. This
course explores the principles and fundamentals of data communication, equipping students with
the knowledge to understand and implement effective communication between devices, systems,
or networks. Key topics include data representation, encoding techniques, communication
protocols, and the OSI Model.
Data and information are fundamental concepts in the field of communication and technology.
Understanding these concepts is essential for comprehending how devices, systems, and
networks interact to exchange meaningful messages. This section delves into the definitions,
characteristics, and real-world relevance of data and information, using relatable scenarios to
illustrate their importance.
1.1 Data
Data refers to raw, unorganized facts that lack context or meaning. These facts can take various
forms, such as numbers, text, images, sounds, or measurements. Data, on its own, does not
convey useful insights until it is processed and interpreted.
Characteristics of Data:
 Raw and Unstructured: Data is not inherently meaningful; it requires organization or
processing. Example: A series of numbers like 25, 30, 27, 29 lacks context. It could
represent anything from temperatures to test scores.
 Variety of Formats: Data can exist in different forms, such as alphanumeric, binary, or
multimedia. Example: Text data in a document, image data in a photo, or numerical data
in a spreadsheet.
 Volatility: Data changes frequently and may become outdated quickly. Example: Stock
market prices fluctuate rapidly.
Consider a weather station recording temperature, humidity, and wind speed. The raw
measurements collected every hour are data. For instance:
 Temperature: 28°C
 Humidity: 60%
 Wind Speed: 15 km/h
This raw data is essential for generating meaningful insights but holds no direct value until
processed and interpreted.
1.2 Information
Information is processed, organized, and structured data that provides meaning and value. It is
data that has been analyzed to support decision-making or to convey a specific message.
Information gives context and relevance to data.
Characteristics of Information:
 Contextualized: Information connects data to a purpose or meaning. Example: Knowing
that the temperature of 28°C refers to a sunny day in Accra provides clarity.
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  Accurate and Relevant: Information must be correct and applicable to the context in
which it is used. Example: Accurate weather forecasts help people plan their day.
 Enhances Decision-Making: Information aids in making informed choices. Example: A
bank analyzing a customer's transaction history to offer tailored financial services.
Building on the earlier weather station example, when the recorded data is analyzed, it can
generate useful information: "The average temperature in Accra today is 28°C with a humidity of
60% and wind speeds averaging 15 km/h. The day is expected to remain sunny." This
information is actionable and helps individuals decide whether to carry an umbrella or wear light
clothing.

Differences Between Data and Information

Signals: A Bridge Between Data and Communication

Signals are the physical representation of data used for communication. They can be classified
into two main types:
 Analog Signals: Continuous waves representing data.
o Example: Human speech transmitted through a telephone line.
 Digital Signals: Discrete binary values (0s and 1s) used by computers and digital devices.
o Example: A text message sent over a cellular network.

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When you send a WhatsApp message, the text (data) is converted into digital signals. These
signals travel over the internet to the recipient, where they are decoded back into readable text
(information).
1.3 Why Data and Information Are Critical
 Facilitates Decision-Making: In healthcare, raw patient data (blood pressure, sugar levels)
is converted into medical insights to guide treatment decisions.
 Enhances Communication: In a corporate setting, data like sales figures is analyzed to
create performance reports (information) that guide business strategies.
 Drives Innovation: Data collected from sensors in smart homes provides information
about energy usage, leading to innovations in energy-saving technologies.
Real-Life Examples of Data and Information Usage
E-Commerce:
 Data: Customer browsing history, purchase history, and product reviews.
 Information: Personalized product recommendations generated by analyzing customer
preferences.
Banking:
 Data: Transaction amounts, account balances, and withdrawal times.
 Information: Monthly financial summaries sent to customers for budgeting purposes.
Education:
 Data: Scores from student assessments.
 Information: A detailed report card highlighting strengths and weaknesses to guide
learning efforts.
Data and information are integral to the functioning of modern systems. Data provides the raw
materials, while information delivers actionable insights. Signals act as the medium through
which data is transmitted, ensuring communication between devices. Understanding these
concepts equips students to analyze and manage data efficiently, making them indispensable in
technology-driven fields like IT, healthcare, and finance. By recognizing the role of data and
information, students can harness their power to solve real-world problems and contribute
meaningfully to the digital age.

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 Unit 2: Fundamentals of data communication and characteristics
Data communication involves the exchange of data between two or more devices. The devices
can be computers, smartphones, sensors, or other equipment capable of sending and receiving
information. The key elements of data communication include:
a. Sender: The device or system that initiates the message. Example: A smartphone sending
an email.
b. Receiver: The device or system that receives and interprets the message. Example: A
laptop receiving the email.
c. Message: The actual data or information being transmitted. Example: Text in an SMS,
audio in a phone call, or video in a video call.
d. Transmission Medium: The physical or wireless channel through which data travels.
Examples: Fiber optic cables, coaxial cables, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth.
e. Protocol: A set of rules governing data transmission, ensuring compatibility between
devices. Example: HTTP for browsing the web, FTP for file transfer.
f. Data Representation: The format of data for communication, such as text, numbers,
images, or audio. Example: ASCII or Unicode for text, MP3 for audio, JPEG for images.

2.1 Characteristics of Data Communication

For effective data communication, certain characteristics must be fulfilled. These characteristics
determine the quality, speed, and reliability of the communication process.
 Delivery: The message must be delivered to the correct destination without error.
Example: When you send an email, it should reach the intended recipient’s inbox without
alteration.
 Accuracy: The message must be transmitted without errors or corruption. Any alteration
during transmission can render the data unusable. Example: A bank transaction must
maintain accuracy to ensure the correct amount is debited or credited.
 Timeliness: Data must be delivered within an acceptable timeframe to maintain its
relevance. This is especially important for real-time systems. Example: Live streaming of
a football match must occur without significant delay for the audience to enjoy it.
 Jitter: The variation in delay during data transmission. High jitter can cause problems in
real-time applications like video calls or online gaming. Example: A video call with high
jitter may result in distorted or delayed audio and video.

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  Bandwidth: The capacity of the transmission medium to carry data, measured in bits per
second (bps). Higher bandwidth allows faster data transfer. Example: Streaming 4K
video requires higher bandwidth compared to audio streaming.
 Latency: The time it takes for data to travel from the sender to the receiver. Low latency
ensures faster communication. Example: Online gaming requires low latency to ensure
smooth gameplay.
2.2 Real-Life Scenarios
1. Video Conferencing:
During a Zoom meeting, data communication enables participants to share video, audio, and
screen content in real time. The sender’s device captures audio and video, encodes it into
digital data, and transmits it via the internet. Characteristics like low latency and high
bandwidth ensure a smooth and uninterrupted experience.
2. Online Shopping:
When placing an order on an e-commerce website, data is exchanged between the user's
device, the website’s server, and the payment gateway. Timeliness and accuracy are critical
to ensure the transaction is processed correctly and quickly.
3. Smart Homes:
In a smart home system, devices like thermostats, lights, and security cameras communicate
with a central hub or app. Accurate and timely data communication ensures that commands
(e.g., turning off the lights) are executed instantly.
4. Healthcare Systems:
Hospitals rely on data communication to transmit patient records between departments or
even across facilities. For instance, a doctor in Accra can access a patient’s MRI scan stored
in Tamale using a secure data communication network. East Life Hospital in Bolga also
transmits some of their scans to specialists in Accra for interpretation.
3.3 Impact of Data Communication
Importance
Global Connectivity: Data communication has bridged geographical barriers, allowing people
and organizations to connect globally. Example: Emails and social media platforms like
WhatsApp enable instant communication worldwide.
Efficient Business Operations: Businesses use data communication to coordinate operations,
share resources, and analyze data. Example: Cloud-based tools like Google Workspace allow
teams to collaborate in real-time, even if members are in different locations.
Improved Decision-Making: Accurate and timely data enables informed decisions. Example:
Stock traders rely on live market data to make investment decisions.

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Automation and IoT: Data communication powers automation in industries and the Internet of
Things (IoT). Example: Sensors in a factory monitor production lines and send data to central
systems for analysis.

Challenges in Data Communication

Security Concerns: Data is vulnerable to breaches during transmission, requiring encryption and
secure protocols.
Infrastructure Limitations: Developing regions may face limited access to high-speed internet,
hindering efficient data communication.
Compatibility Issues: Devices from different manufacturers may use incompatible protocols,
creating barriers to seamless communication.
Data communication is a cornerstone of modern technology, enabling efficient information
exchange between devices and systems. Its fundamentals—such as sender, receiver, medium,
and protocol—ensure smooth communication, while its characteristics like accuracy, timeliness,
and bandwidth guarantee quality. Real-life applications, from video conferencing to smart
homes, highlight the importance of data communication in enhancing daily life and driving
innovation. By mastering these principles, students can design and manage robust
communication systems for diverse applications.

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 Unit 3: Components of data communication
Data communication is the process of exchanging data between two or more devices via a
transmission medium. For successful communication, several components work together to
ensure the data reaches its destination accurately, securely, and efficiently. Understanding these
components is essential for building and maintaining robust communication systems.

3.1 The Components

a. Sender
The sender is the device or entity that initiates the communication process by transmitting data. It
can be a computer, smartphone, sensor, or any device capable of generating data and sending it
to a receiver. The sender is responsible for encoding the message into a format suitable for
transmission.
Functions of a Sender:
 Data Creation: The sender generates the raw data to be transmitted.
 Encoding: Converts the data into a signal (analog or digital) that can travel through the
transmission medium.
When you send an email, your computer or smartphone acts as the sender. It takes your input
(text, images, or attachments), encodes it into digital signals, and sends it through the internet to
the recipient’s device.
b. Receiver
The receiver is the device or entity at the other end of the communication process. It accepts the
transmitted data, decodes it, and converts it into a form understandable to the user or system. The
receiver ensures that the data is accurately interpreted and utilized as intended.
Functions of a Receiver:
 Decoding: Converts signals back into their original data format.

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  Acknowledgment: Confirms receipt of the data to the sender, depending on the
communication protocol.
When you stream a YouTube video, your smartphone or computer acts as the receiver. It
decodes the video data sent by the YouTube server and plays it on your device.
c. Message
The message is the data or information being transmitted between the sender and receiver. It can
take various forms, including text, audio, video, images, or a combination of these formats.
Characteristics of a Message:
 Content: The actual data to be conveyed.
 Format: The structure or encoding of the message (e.g., ASCII for text, MP3 for audio).
In a video call, the message includes both video and audio data, transmitted in real-time to ensure
smooth communication.
d. Transmission Medium
The transmission medium is the physical path or channel through which the data travels from the
sender to the receiver. It plays a critical role in determining the speed, reliability, and quality of
communication.
Types of Transmission Media:

 Wired Media: Examples: Coaxial cables, fiber optic cables, twisted pair cables.
o Advantages: High reliability, low interference, and fast data transfer rates.
Internet connections in offices often use fiber optic cables for high-speed communication.
 Wireless Media: Examples: Radio waves, microwaves, infrared, satellite.
o Advantages: Flexibility and ease of installation.
Wi-Fi networks at home use wireless media to connect devices to the internet.
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 e. Protocols
Protocols are the rules and conventions that govern how data is transmitted and received. They
ensure compatibility between devices and enable seamless communication.

Functions of Protocols:
 Syntax: Defines data formats and structures.
 Semantics: Specifies control information, like start and stop signals.
 Timing: Coordinates data transmission rates to avoid collisions or delays.
Examples of Protocols:
 HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol): Used for web communication.
 FTP (File Transfer Protocol): Facilitates file transfers.
 TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol): Powers the internet by
ensuring reliable data delivery.
When you browse a website, the HTTP protocol enables your browser to request and receive the
webpage from the server.
f. Encoder and Decoder
These components are responsible for converting data into signals suitable for transmission and
back into readable data upon reception.
 Encoder: Converts the sender's message into a signal (analog or digital) for transmission.
 Decoder: Converts the received signal back into its original form for interpretation by the
receiver.
During a phone call, the microphone in your smartphone encodes your voice into digital signals,
while the speaker at the other end decodes the signals back into audible sound.

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 g. Modem
A modem (modulator-demodulator) is a device that facilitates communication between digital
devices over analog transmission mediums like telephone lines. It converts digital signals into
analog signals for transmission and vice versa.
In homes with DSL internet connections, a modem is used to connect your computer or Wi-Fi
router to the internet.
h. Feedback
Feedback is optional in data communication but essential in many systems. It provides
confirmation from the receiver to the sender that the data has been successfully received or
requires retransmission.
When sending a message on WhatsApp, a double-check mark confirms that the message has
been delivered to the recipient's device, providing feedback to the sender.
3.2 How These Components Work Together
Example Scenario: Online Shopping
 Sender: The user places an order on an e-commerce website using their smartphone or
computer.
 Message: The order details, such as product name, quantity, and delivery address.
 Transmission Medium: The internet, utilizing a combination of fiber optic and wireless
media.
 Protocol: HTTPS ensures secure communication between the user’s browser and the
website.
 Receiver: The website's server processes the order and sends a confirmation message.
 Feedback: The user receives an email or notification confirming their order.
The components of data communication work together seamlessly to enable the exchange of data
across devices and networks. From the sender and receiver to the protocols and transmission
medium, each component plays a critical role in ensuring accurate, efficient, and secure
communication. By understanding these components, you can appreciate the complexity behind
everyday communication technologies, such as emails, video calls, and online transactions, and
apply this knowledge to design and troubleshoot communication systems.

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 Unit 4: Data representations, Encoding and Communication Technique
Data communication involves representing, encoding, and transmitting data effectively from a
sender to a receiver. These processes ensure that raw data can be transformed into meaningful
information, transmitted accurately, and understood by the receiving system. This section delves
into how data is represented, encoded for transmission, and communicated using various
techniques.

4.1 Data Representation

Data representation refers to the formats and methods used to store, process, and communicate
data in computers and communication systems. Data can exist in various forms, including text,
numbers, images, audio, and video.
4.1.1 Representing Text
Text data is typically represented using standardized encoding schemes such as:
 ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange): Uses 7 or 8 bits to
represent characters (e.g., 'A' = 65, 'B' = 66).
 Unicode: Supports a wider range of characters, including international alphabets, by
using up to 32 bits.
Example: The word "CAT" in ASCII:
'C' = 67 → 01000011
'A' = 65 → 01000001
'T' = 84 → 01010100
The word "CAT" is represented as: 01000011 01000001 01010100
4.1.2 Representing Numbers
Numbers are represented using binary systems in computers:
 Decimal (Base 10): Commonly used in everyday life (e.g., 123).
 Binary (Base 2): Used in computers (e.g., 1111011 for 123).
 Hexadecimal (Base 16): Compact representation used in programming and networking
(e.g., 7B for 123).

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Conversion Example: Convert decimal 123 to binary:
Divide the number by 2, recording remainders:
123 ÷ 2 = 61 remainder 1
61 ÷ 2 = 30 remainder 1
30 ÷ 2 = 15 remainder 0
15 ÷ 2 = 7 remainder 1
7 ÷ 2 = 3 remainder 1
3 ÷ 2 = 1 remainder 1
1 ÷ 2 = 0 remainder 1
Binary Representation: 1111011
4.1.3 Representing Images
Images are represented as a grid of pixels, where each pixel has a value corresponding to its
color.
 Grayscale Images: Each pixel is represented by a single value (0–255).
 Color Images: Each pixel uses three values for Red, Green, and Blue (RGB).
Mathematical Example:
For a 3x3 grayscale image:

Each number represents the brightness of a pixel, where 0 is black, and 255 is white.

4.2 Data Encoding

See Computer Science XI - kecs102 attached.

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4.3 Communication Techniques
Communication techniques define how data is transmitted between devices. They ensure reliable
and efficient transfer of information.
1. Baseband Transmission
Baseband transmission sends the signal as it is, without modulation. It is commonly used for
short-distance communication, such as Ethernet.
Example: Data transmitted over a local area network (LAN).
2. Broadband Transmission
Broadband divides the medium into multiple channels, allowing simultaneous transmission of
multiple signals.
Example: Cable TV networks transmit multiple channels over a single coaxial cable.

3. Multiplexing

Multiplexing combines multiple signals for transmission over a single medium, optimizing
bandwidth usage.
 Time Division Multiplexing (TDM): Each signal gets a time slot.
 Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM): Each signal is transmitted at a different
frequency.

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Mobile networks use multiplexing to handle calls and internet traffic for multiple users
simultaneously.

4.4 Scenarios of Data Representation, Encoding, and Communication Techniques

Online Video Streaming:
 Data Representation: Video is compressed using formats like MP4.
 Encoding: The video data is encoded into digital signals for transmission.
 Communication: Broadband networks ensure high-speed delivery to the user.
Internet of Things (IoT):
 Data Representation: Sensor data (e.g., temperature, humidity) is converted into binary.
 Encoding: The data is encoded for wireless transmission.
 Communication: IoT devices use TDM or FDM to transmit data to a central hub.
Digital Telephony:
 Data Representation: Voice is converted into digital signals.
 Encoding: PCM encodes the voice data.
 Communication: Broadband networks transmit voice packets efficiently.
Data representation, encoding, and communication techniques are critical for effective data
transmission in modern systems. By representing data in appropriate formats, encoding it into
signals, and employing reliable communication techniques, devices can exchange information
seamlessly. These processes are integral to everyday technologies like online streaming, mobile
communication, and IoT devices, ensuring that data is transmitted accurately and efficiently.
Understanding these concepts equips students to design and optimize communication systems for
diverse applications.

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 Unit 5: Data flows such as simplex, half duplex and full duplex
Data flow refers to the direction in which data travels between two devices in a communication
system. Understanding the types of data flows is essential for designing effective communication
systems that suit specific applications and use cases.
The three primary types of data flows are Simplex, Half-Duplex, and Full-Duplex, each with
unique characteristics, and real-life scenarios.

or

5.1 Simplex Data Flow

In a Simplex system, data flows in only one direction, from the sender to the receiver. The
receiver cannot send any data back to the sender. This type of communication is often used in
systems where feedback is unnecessary.
Characteristics:
 Unidirectional: Data flows in one direction only.
 No Feedback: The receiver does not acknowledge receipt of data.
 Applications: Typically used in broadcasting systems or sensors.
Real-Life Scenario: In a television broadcast, the signal flows from the broadcasting station
(sender) to the television set (receiver). The viewer cannot send data back to the station.

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5.2 Half-Duplex Data Flow
In a Half-Duplex system, data flows in both directions, but only one direction at a time. This
means that while one device sends data, the other device must wait for the transmission to
complete before it can respond. Half-duplex communication is often used in systems where
simultaneous transmission and reception are not required.
Characteristics:
 Bidirectional but Alternating: Data flows both ways, one direction at a time.
 Efficient for Sequential Communication: Suitable for systems that alternate between
sending and receiving data.
 Applications: Commonly used in walkie-talkies and some network protocols.
Real-Life Scenario: When using a walkie-talkie, one person speaks (sends data) while the other
listens. The roles alternate, but both cannot speak simultaneously. For instance, pressing the
"push-to-talk" button allows one person to transmit while the other waits.
5.3 Full-Duplex Data Flow
In a Full-Duplex system, data flows in both directions simultaneously. Both devices can send and
receive data at the same time, making this method highly efficient for real-time communication.
Full-duplex communication requires separate channels for transmission and reception or the use
of advanced multiplexing techniques.
Characteristics:
 Simultaneous Bidirectional Communication: Data flows both ways without delay.
 High Efficiency: Ideal for systems requiring real-time interaction.
 Applications: Used in telephone systems, video conferencing, and modern computer
networks.
Real-Life Scenario: In a phone call, both participants can speak and listen simultaneously. The
system uses separate frequency bands for uplink and downlink, ensuring smooth communication.
Example: If a telephone network has a bandwidth of 100 Mbps, full-duplex operation ensures
that each user can simultaneously send and receive at 100 Mbps, making it highly efficient for
conversations.
5.4 Comparison & Application
Comparison of Data Flows

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Real-Life Applications of Data Flows
Simplex Communication in Digital Billboards:
 Digital advertisements on roadside billboards use simplex data flow. The billboard
displays information (sender) to viewers (receivers) without receiving feedback.
Half-Duplex in Banking Systems:
 ATMs often operate in a half-duplex manner. When a user inputs their PIN, the system
processes the input and responds sequentially.
Full-Duplex in Video Conferencing:
 Platforms like Zoom and Microsoft Teams rely on full-duplex communication, enabling
participants to speak and listen simultaneously. This ensures seamless interaction during
meetings.

The type of data flow used in a communication system depends on the application's
requirements. Simplex is suitable for unidirectional communication, half-duplex is ideal for
sequential bidirectional interaction, and full-duplex is necessary for real-time communication. By
understanding these flows and their characteristics, engineers can design systems that optimize
bandwidth, speed, and reliability, ensuring efficient data exchange in various real-world
scenarios.

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 Unit 6: Protocols and Elements of Protocols
Protocols are the backbone of modern data communication, enabling seamless interaction
between devices, systems, and networks. A protocol is a set of rules and conventions that govern
the exchange of data. It defines how data is transmitted, received, and interpreted to ensure
accurate and efficient communication between sender and receiver. In this expanded section, we
delve into the types, elements, and real-life scenarios of protocols.

6.1 What Are Protocols?

A protocol ensures that devices, regardless of manufacturer or type, can communicate
effectively. Without protocols, devices would not understand each other’s data format, timing, or
transmission methods.
Protocols govern every aspect of data exchange, including:
1. How the connection is established and terminated.
2. How errors are detected and corrected.
3. The data format and structure during communication.
Example:
When you access a website, the HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol) ensures that your browser
and the website’s server can exchange data in a structured and understandable format.
6.2 Elements of Protocols
Protocols have three fundamental elements that ensure successful communication: Syntax,
Semantics, and Timing.
1. Syntax
Syntax refers to the structure or format of the data being transmitted. It defines how the data is
organized and presented, such as encoding methods, packet size, and data fields.
Components of Syntax:

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  Encoding: Specifies how data is represented (e.g., ASCII for text, UTF-8 for international
characters).
 Packet Structure: Defines how data packets are formatted, including headers, payload,
and trailers.
Example: In email communication, the SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) ensures that the
email’s subject, body, and recipient details are encoded in a standard format.
2. Semantics
Semantics defines the meaning of each part of the transmitted data. It ensures that both the
sender and receiver interpret the data correctly.
Components of Semantics:
 Control Information: Indicates start and stop commands, acknowledgment signals, or
error messages.
 Error Correction: Adds meaning to signals indicating whether data was received
successfully.
Example: In TCP (Transmission Control Protocol), the acknowledgment (ACK) signal confirms
successful receipt of data packets, ensuring reliable delivery.
3. Timing
Timing refers to the synchronization and scheduling of data transmission. It ensures that data is
sent and received at appropriate speeds and intervals to prevent collisions or loss.
Components of Timing:
 Flow Control: Ensures that the sender does not overwhelm the receiver by transmitting
data faster than it can process.
 Error Recovery: Ensures retransmission of data when errors occur or packets are lost.
Example: In video streaming, RTP (Real-Time Protocol) ensures smooth playback by
synchronizing data packets and handling delays.
6.3 Types of Protocols
Protocols can be categorized based on their function or application:
1. Communication Protocols: Enable the exchange of data between devices.
Examples:
 HTTP: Governs web browsing.
 SMTP: Handles email transmission.
 FTP (File Transfer Protocol): Manages file uploads and downloads.
2. Network Protocols: Define rules for data transfer across networks.
Examples:

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  TCP/IP: Ensures reliable communication over the internet.
 IP (Internet Protocol): Handles addressing and routing of data packets.
3. Security Protocols: Protect data during transmission.
Examples:
 HTTPS: Encrypts web communication using SSL/TLS.
 VPN (Virtual Private Network): Secures remote access to networks.
Application of Protocols
1. Accessing a Website: When you open a browser and type in a URL, multiple protocols work
together:
 DNS (Domain Name System): Translates the URL into an IP address.
 HTTP/HTTPS: Ensures secure transmission of webpage data.
 TCP/IP: Breaks the data into packets, transmits them, and reassembles them at the
destination.
2. Video Conferencing: In platforms like Zoom or Microsoft Teams, protocols ensure smooth
communication:
 RTP (Real-Time Protocol): Synchronizes audio and video streams.
 UDP (User Datagram Protocol): Ensures low latency by prioritizing speed over error
correction.
3. Sending an Email: When you send an email, several protocols are involved:
 SMTP: Sends the email from your client to the recipient’s server.
 IMAP/POP3: Allows the recipient to retrieve the email from their mail server.
4. File Transfers: For large file transfers, protocols ensure data integrity:
 FTP: Transfers files between devices.
 SFTP (Secure FTP): Encrypts file transfers for security.

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Mathematics in Protocols
Protocols rely on mathematical algorithms to ensure accurate and efficient communication:
1. Error Detection and Correction: Techniques like cyclic redundancy check (CRC) or
parity bits detect and correct errors.
Example: If data D is transmitted as 10101010, and the CRC adds a check bit, the receiver uses
polynomial division to verify integrity.
2. Encryption Algorithms: Security protocols use encryption (e.g., RSA or AES) to protect
data.
Example: In HTTPS, the RSA algorithm encrypts the session key for secure communication.
3. Flow Control: Sliding Window Protocol uses mathematical calculations to manage the
transmission rate.
Example: If the window size is W=4 and the bandwidth is B=100bps, the data sent per second is
W×B.
Why Protocols Are Important?

 Interoperability: Protocols allow devices from different manufacturers to communicate

seamlessly.
 Error Handling: Ensure data integrity and reliability during transmission.
 Security: Protect sensitive information from unauthorized access during communication.
 Efficiency: Optimize the use of bandwidth and resources for data transmission.
Protocols and their elements—syntax, semantics, and timing—are fundamental to effective data
communication. Whether it’s browsing the web, sending emails, or streaming videos, protocols
ensure that devices understand and process data correctly. Real-life scenarios like website access,
video conferencing, and secure file transfers highlight the critical role protocols play in our
digital lives. By mastering these concepts, students can design and implement efficient
communication systems that meet modern technological demands.

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 Unit 7: The OSI standardization model
The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model is a conceptual framework developed by the
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) to standardize the functions of a
communication system into seven distinct layers.
Each layer is designed to handle a specific aspect of data communication, enabling seamless
interaction between heterogeneous systems. Understanding the OSI model is fundamental for
students and professionals involved in networking, as it provides a structured approach to
designing, troubleshooting, and understanding communication protocols.
The OSI model should not be confused with the TCP/IP model since the OSI model is just a
conceptual framework that defines a standardized, layered approach to network communication,
encompassing seven distinct layers, while the TCP/IP model is a practical, industry-standard
model developed by DoD with four layers that focuses on how data is transmitted across the
internet, primarily using the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and Internet Protocol (IP) as
core protocols; essentially, the OSI model provides a broader theoretical understanding of
network communication, whereas TCP/IP is a more specific implementation used in real-world
networks.

7.1 Overview of the OSI Model

The OSI model is composed of seven layers, each with a specific role in ensuring effective
communication between devices.
These layers can be grouped into two categories:
 Application Layers: Focus on user interface and data interaction (Layers 5–7).

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  Data Transport Layers: Handle data transmission and integrity (Layers 1–4).

The layers are arranged as follows:

Layer Function
7. Application User interface and network services
6. Presentation Data translation, encryption, and compression
5. Session Establishes, manages, and terminates sessions
4. Transport Ensures reliable data delivery with error recovery and flow control
3. Network Handles data routing and addressing
2. Data Link Ensures error-free data transfer between adjacent network nodes
1. Physical Transmits raw bitstreams over a physical medium

1. Physical Layer
The Physical layer is responsible for transmitting raw bits over the physical medium, such as
cables, radio waves, or fiber optics. It defines hardware specifications, such as connectors,
voltage levels, and data rates.
In a home network, the Ethernet cable connecting your computer to the router operates at the
Physical layer, transmitting data as electrical signals.
2. Data Link Layer
The Data Link layer ensures error-free data transfer between directly connected nodes. It uses
protocols like MAC (Media Access Control) and LLC (Logical Link Control) to manage data
frames and detect errors. Key Functions:
 Frame synchronization.
 Error detection and correction.
 Flow control to prevent data loss.
When you connect to a Wi-Fi network, the Data Link layer manages the MAC addresses of your
device and the router to ensure proper communication.

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3. Network Layer
The Network layer handles data routing and addressing, ensuring that data packets are delivered
to the correct destination across multiple networks. It uses logical addressing (IP addresses) and
routing algorithms. Key Protocols:
 IP (Internet Protocol): Assigns addresses to devices and routes packets.
 ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol): Diagnoses network issues (e.g., ping).
When you access a website, the Network layer determines the best route for your data to travel
across the internet to reach the website’s server.
4. Transport Layer
The Transport layer ensures reliable data delivery with mechanisms like segmentation, error
correction, and flow control. It uses protocols like TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and
UDP (User Datagram Protocol). Key Features:
 TCP: Reliable communication with error checking and retransmission.
 UDP: Faster, less reliable communication, ideal for real-time applications.
During a video call, the Transport layer uses UDP to ensure low-latency communication,
prioritizing speed over reliability. For downloading files, TCP ensures error-free transmission.
5. Session Layer
The Session layer establishes, manages, and terminates sessions between devices. It keeps track
of dialog states and synchronizes data exchange.
When streaming a Netflix movie, the Session layer ensures that the streaming session remains
active, even if minor network disruptions occur.
6. Presentation Layer
The Presentation layer translates data into a format the application layer can understand. It
handles data encryption, compression, and encoding. Key Functions:
 Converts ASCII to binary or vice versa.
 Compresses multimedia files for efficient transmission.
 Encrypts sensitive data for secure communication.
When sending an email with attachments, the Presentation layer ensures the attached images or
documents are compressed and encrypted for faster and secure transfer.
7. Application Layer
The Application layer provides the user interface for accessing network services, such as file
transfer, email, and web browsing. It interacts directly with software applications to facilitate
communication. Key Protocols:

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  HTTP/HTTPS: For web browsing.
 SMTP: For sending emails.
 FTP: For file transfers.
When you browse a website, the Application layer ensures that the web server responds to your
browser's requests, displaying the content in a human-readable format.
7.2 Importance of the OSI Model
1. Standardization: Provides a universal framework for manufacturers and developers,
ensuring compatibility between different systems.
2. Troubleshooting: Breaks down communication into layers, simplifying the diagnosis of
network issues.
3. Flexibility: Allows upgrades or changes at one layer without affecting others.
4. Interoperability: Facilitates communication between diverse hardware and software.
When you send an email, the OSI layers work as follows:
 Application Layer: The email client formats your email using SMTP.
 Presentation Layer: Encrypts and compresses the email for secure transmission.
 Session Layer: Establishes a session with the recipient’s mail server.
 Transport Layer: Uses TCP to segment and ensure reliable delivery of the email.
 Network Layer: Routes the email through multiple networks using IP addresses.
 Data Link Layer: Packages the email into frames for transmission over the local network.
 Physical Layer: Sends the raw data as electrical signals through cables or Wi-Fi.
The OSI model is a cornerstone of data communication, organizing complex processes into
manageable layers. Each layer has specific responsibilities, from transmitting raw bits at the
Physical layer to presenting user-friendly interfaces at the Application layer. Real-life scenarios,
such as email transmission and video streaming, demonstrate the practical relevance of the OSI
model. By mastering this model, students and professionals can design, troubleshoot, and
optimize communication systems, ensuring efficient data exchange in a connected world.

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