JUNIOR SCHOOL EDUCATION

SOCIAL
STUDIES
G9
2025
 SOCIAL STUDIES AND CAREER DEVELOPMENT
PATHWAY CHOICES
A career is the professional journey that one chooses to follow to purse one’s interest
and achieve one’s goal in work life

Career paths
1. Health care
  
Doctor
  
Pharmacist
  
Nurse
  
Medical researcher
2. Business and finance
  
Entrepreneur
  
Marketing manager
  
Accountant
  
Business consultant
3. Education
  
Teacher
  
School principal
  
Special education teacher
  
Education administrator
4. Law and legal services
  
LAWYER
  
Judge
  
Legal consultant
  
Legal secretary
5. Environmental and sustainability


6. Communication and media
  
Journalist
  
Content writer
  
Social media manager
  
News anchor
7. Hospitality and tourism
  
Travel agent
 
Tour guide
Identifying factors to consider in the selection of a pathway
The following are factors to consider in the selection of a career pathway:
a) Personal interests –
Choose a career that aligns with your passion and interests. Consider the activities or subjects
you enjoy the most and explore career options related to those areas.
b) Skills and abilities
Assess your strengths and abilities. Identify the skills you excel in and consider careers that
allow you to utilise and further develop those skills.
c) Values and motivations
Reflect on your values and what motivates you. Consider the type of work environment,
culture and values that are important to you and find a career that aligns with those principles.
d) Education and training
Evaluate the educational and training requirements for different career paths. Determine if you are
willing and able to pursue the necessary education or training to enter your desired field.
e) Networking opportunities
Research the networking opportunities available in different fields. Consider the importance
of professional connections and how they can contribute to career growth.
f) Personal fulfillment
Aim for a career that provides a sense of purpose and allows you to make a positive impact in
the areas that matter to you.

Requirements for social sciences pathway at senior school

To pursue a career in the field of Social Sciences in senior school requires the
following requirements:
a) Learning areas or educational subjects
relevant courses in Social Studies, History, Psychology, Sociology, Economics, and
Geography. These subjects provide a solid foundation for understanding human behaviour,
societies and the broader Social Sciences.
b) Research and critical thinking –
develop research skills and critical thinking abilities by engaging in class projects,
independent research or participating in academic competitions. These experiences can
enhance your problem-solving skills, which are valuable in Social Science careers.
c) Writing and communication skills
Work on improving your writing and communication skills, as Social Science careers
often involve presenting ideas, conducting research and writing reports or essays.
d) Extracurricular activities –
Participate in extracurricular activities related to Social Sciences, such as joining a Social
Science club, volunteering for community organisations or attending lectures and
workshops. These activities can demonstrate your passion for the field and provide practical
experiences. e) Networking –
Build connections with teachers, mentors and professionals in the Social Sciences. Attend career
fairs or workshops to meet individuals working in the field and learn from their experiences.
Appreciating the need for choosing a pathway in senior school
The following is the need for choosing a pathway in senior school.
a) It helps you to focus on subjects and activities that genuinely interest you. It gives you a
clear direction for your academic journey.

b) By selecting a pathway, you get a chance to discover your passions and talents.

c) It allows you to set goals and work towards achieving them. It gives you a sense of
purpose and motivation to strive for success in your chosen field.

d) It offers specialised knowledge and skills related to a specific area. It helps you gain a
deeper understanding of subjects you enjoy and prepares you for future studies.

e) It encourages personal growth and development. It allows you to challenge yourself, learn
new things and become more confident in your abilities.

f) It helps you to align your studies with your future career. By focusing on subjects relevant
to your chosen field, you build a strong foundation and gain valuable skills for future success.

g)It provides you with guidance and support from teachers and mentors who specialise in
that area. They can offer valuable guidance and help you in your academic journey.

Pre career support systems

Exploring the importance of different support systems for holistic development in a school
community
Meaning of support systems in a school community
 A support system is a group of people and resources in school that help learners succed
 in any challenges they may face while in school
 They provide encouragement, guidance and resources to help learners reach their
goals and overcome challenges

The following are examples of support systems in a school community:

a) School administration - the head teacher, deputy principals, teachers and other school staff
work closely to help ensure a safe, productive learning environment for students. They work with
the community to address any issues or concerns that arise in the school community.

b) Guidance and Counseling - school counsellors provide academic, social-emotional and

career guidance to learners. The school counsellors meet with learners individually or in small
groups to help them develop important life skills, cope with personal challenges, and plan for
their future.

c) School nurse's office - this is an important resource for learners who become sick or get
injured while in school. The nurse can provide first aid, administer medications and
connect learners and families with additional medical resources if needed.

d) Parent-teacher meetings - these are regular meetings between parents and teachers that allow
for open communication about a learner's progress, strengths, and areas for improvement.
 These meetings help to ensure that everyone is working together to support the learner's
academic and personal growth.

The significance of pre career mapping for individual growth

 A pre career is the process of discovering yourself and possible career paths before
you decide on specific future career

Significance Explanation
Reducing regrets

Adaptability

Continuous learning

Practice approach

Informed decisions

Clarity and direction

Goal setting

Skill development

The following are importance of pre-career mapping to individual growth.


  interests and passions,
Helps discover interests by helping individuals to explore their
allowing them to choose a career path that they truly enjoy.

 Set clear
and specific goals for their future careers, giving them a sense of direction and
purpose.

Guides decision-making where individuals can make informed decisions about
 education, training, and skill development, ensuring they are on the right track to reach
their desired career.
  
Increases motivation by making one more determined to work towards their career goals.

Promotes self awareness by encouraging self reflection, helping individuals understand their
strengths, weakness and values, leading to better career choices

Using support systems for pre career development in the school community
A career support system helps learners in development of careers in schools through
the following ways

on their skills
Provide guidance on career options and helps to eplore different paths based
and interest and prepares them for job applications and college admissions


 
Alumni connect learners with graduates who can share their career experiences, offer
mentorship and provide insights into specific industries or universities.

  experienced professionals who offer career advice and provide
Connects learners with
emotional support.
 
  they help learners develop professional skills and offer
Mentors can be role models,
networking opportunities.

 
Provides a safe space for learners to discuss personal challenges, explore values and
meaning-making and offer spiritual guidance.

 Chaplains can help learners overcome personal anxieties  related to career choices,
fostering a sense of well-being that impacts career focus.

Provides support for learners facing socio-economic challenges for example,
 
food insecurity and housing instability that can impact their ability to focus on
career development.

  and physical health and
Provides resources for learners to manage stress, improve mental
develop healthy habits that contribute to overall well-being.

Provides health resources for learners to manage stress, improve mental and physical health
and develop healthy habits that contribute to overall well-being.

Designing solutions to challenges arising from use of support

systems Challenges arising from use of support systems
Pre-career support systems are there to help, but they can also present some challenges.
The following are examples of challenges from pre-career support systems.
a) Limited resources - schools may have limited funding or staffing for pre-career support
systems, which can result in a lack of career counsellors or limited access to career
exploration materials and tools.

b) High learner-to-counsellor ratio - schools may have a high number of students per career
counsellor making it challenging for counsellors to provide individualised guidance and support
to each student.

c) Lack of parental involvement - parents play an important role in supporting their children's career
development. However, pre-career support systems may struggle to engage parents effectively,
leading to limited parental involvement in career planning discussions and activities.

d) Limited scope - programs might focus on specific industries or job types, which might not
be ideal if you are undecided or have a unique career path.

e) Passive participation getting - the most out of support systems often requires your initiative. If
you are shy or unsure what to ask for, it can be hard to benefit fully.
Designing solutions to challenges arising from use of support systems
Challenges arising from Solutions
use of support systems
Passive participation

Accessibility

Limited scope

Feeling overwhelmed

General guidance

The following are some solutions to challenges arising from the use of support systems:
a) Be clear about your goals: Knowing what you want to achieve will help you find the
most relevant programs and resources.

b) Do not be afraid to ask questions: Advisors and mentors are there to help you navigate
the pre-career process.
c) Seek out diverse resources: Look beyond your school or a single program to find support that
fits your specific needs.

d) Take initiative: Do not wait for opportunities to come to you. Research companies,
network with professionals, and actively participate in programs.

e) Focus on what works for you: There is no one-size-fits-all approach. Experiment and find the
support systems that benefit you the most.

Values of support systems in career development

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COMMUNITY SERVICE LEARNING
Community service learning project
Identifying a problem or a gap in the community
We can use different methods or ways to gather information from community members
about issues affecting them. These methods or ways include:
  Carrying out physical or online interviews with the community members,
 Holding community gatherings or public barazas,
 Issuing out questionnaires to community members for them to fill,
 Carrying out case studies in the community,
 Co-hosting community radio and television programmes where
 Community members can share the issues affecting them.

Designing solutions to the identified problem

Problem – ACCIDENTS INVOLVING MOTORCYCLES
Communities can work together to reduce accidents involving motorcycles, protect road
users and promote responsible and safe behaviour on roads by implementing the following
comprehensive road safety solutions:
1. Road safety measures:
a) Implement speed limits and strict enforcement.
b) Maintain roads regularly.
c) Construct modern roads with separate lanes for motorcycles.

2. Education and training for road users:

a) Compulsory education for motorcyclists.
b) Enforce strict licensing requirements.

3. Public awareness campaigns:

a) Focus on motorcycle safety.
b) Highlight the risks of reckless riding.
c) Promote responsible behavior on roads
d) Educate car and truck drivers on sharing the road safety with motorcyclists

Planning to implement the proposed solutions

 When planning for CSL project, resources should be sourced beforehand to ensure
 the smooth flow of the project.
 It is encouraged that locally available materials should be used s resources for the CSL
project

Implementing the proposed solutions.

1. Seeking for permission to carry out the CSL project
2. Implementation of the CSL project
3. Reflection on the concluded project
4. Writing a eport on the project

7
PEOPLE AND RELATIONSHIP
Socio Economic Practices of early Humans
  Early humans did not have the improved technology and systems we have today.


  Their socio economic practices were based on their basic needs and resources available to them.
  Early human had a simple basic socio economic system on meeting their basic needs.

  
This was done through
1. Hunting
2. Gathering
3. Communal cooperation

Describing the socio economic practices of early humans in Africa during the stone
age The stone age period

 to a period of time when early humans made tools and
The stone age period refers
weapons from stones.
  The tools and weapons were used for different purposes

 
The Stone Age period is divided into three different periods. These periods are:
a) The Early Stone Age period –
It refers to the earliest stage of human history characterised by the use of simple stone tools. The
Early Stone Age represents the beginning of human technological and cultural development.
b) The Middle Stone Age period –
It follows the Early Stone Age. It is characterised by improved tool technology, cultural
developments and shifts in human behaviour.
c) The Late Stone Age period –
It follows the Middle Stone Age. It is characterised with development in agriculture. The
Late Stone Age period represents a time of significant cultural and technological
developments for early human societies.

NB
The Stone Age Period
The Stone Age period began 2 million years ago. It is divided into three stages, Early Stone
Age, Middle Stone Age and Late Stone Age. Each stage represents development in civilisation
of man.
The Early Stone Age period marks the beginning of human culture and technological
development. During this age, most Homo Habilis emerged. Because of their increased brain
size compared to Australopithecus, they used stones which were found in nature for hunting. The
stones already had a cutting edge. The humans in this age used tools such as scrapers, blades and
arrowheads.
The Middle Stone Age period is mainly characterised by the invention of fire. During this
stage, humans started to sharpen their stone tools such as scrapers, blades and arrowheads
which they used for hunting and fishing. Humans learnt how to cultivate and made farm tools
using sharpened stones and wood. They used these tools to till land. They also used stone
mortars and pestles to grind their cereals and grains.

8
The Late Stone Age is the last stage of the Stone Age period. Humans developed more refined
tools, including finely crafted blades and specialised tools for specific tasks. These tools were
often made from materials such as bones showcasing increased skill in craftsmanship.
The Stone Age is said to have ended with the beginning of metalworking and the Bronze or
Iron Age.

Socio economic practices refer to the ways in which societies organize and conduct
economic activities within a social and cultural context.
Examples of socio economic practices include
1. Agriculture
2. Trading
3. Pastoralism

Early Stone Age

a) Invented and made tools from stones.
b) Walked naked.
c) Slept on top of trees.

Middle Stone Age

a) Made improved tools such as scrappers.
b) Lived in caves and rock shelters.
c) Wore animal skin.

Late Stone Age

a) Made improved stone tools such as bone needles and arrowheads.
b) Lived in shelters and houses made using tree branches and grass.
c) Cultivated crops and reared animals.

9
Examining/ illustrating different types of tools used by early humans during stone age
period
TOOL HOW IT WAS USED
a) Hand axe a) It was used for cutting, chopping and
butchering animal carcasses.
b) Scraper b) It was used for separating the meat from the
bones and removing the skin or fur from the
animal carcass after hunting.
c) Arrowhead c) Early humans attached the arrowhead to the
arrow where the sharp point of the arrowhead
was used to penetrate the animal's flesh
ensuring a successful hunt.
d) Grinding stone d) It was used to grind grains, seeds, nuts and
other plant materials into flour, meal or paste.
e) Hammerstone It was used as a pounding tool for example to
pound roots or tubers. It was also used to break
open nuts, shape other stones and perform
various tasks that required force.
f) Digging stick The early humans used a digging stick made
from wood to loosen and turn over the soil for
planting seeds and digging up tubers.

Africa as the birth place of human technology

Fossil record - Africa is the origin of the earliest known hominid species, including Homo
habilis and Homo erectus, who demonstrated the use of tools. The discovery of early stone
tools in Africa provides concrete evidence of early humans' technological abilities.

Archaeological sites - Various archaeological sites across Africa, such as Olduvai Gorge
in Tanzania and Sterkfontein in South Africa, have yielded significant findings related to
early human technology.

Rock art - Africa is home to some of the oldest rock art sites in the world, for example,
Drankesberg Rock Art in South Africa and Brandberg Mountain in Namibia. These art
sites showcase early humans' creativity and ability to express themselves through visual
representation.

Oral traditions - African oral traditions often contain narratives and stories that refer to the
use of tools, technologies, and the transmission of knowledge through generations. They
provide valuable information into Africa's technological past.

10
Indigenous Knowledge Systems in African Societies

Indigenous knowledge systems in Africa societies refer to the diverse knowledge
 practices, belief and traditions that have
been developed and passed down through
generations within Africa communities.

 in the cultural, social and environmental
These knowledge systems are deeply rooted
contexts of different African societies

Identifying forms or types of indigenous knowledge systems in African societies

Indigenous knowledge systems is the knowledge, practices, beliefs and wisdom that have
been developed and passed down over generations

ln African societies, indigenous knowledge systems are made up of various forms of

knowledge and practices. These systems include:

a) Medicine - traditional healers such as herbalists, diviners and spiritual practitioners possess
deep knowledge of medicinal plants, rituals and holistic healing methods. These practices are
connected to African beliefs about the interconnectedness of humans and nature.

b) Religion - indigenous African religions are deeply intertwined with cultural practices, rituals
and belief systems. They include a diverse range of spiritual traditions and the worship of natural
elements.

c) Agriculture - African communities have developed sustainable agricultural practices such as

intercropping and terracing that are adapted to local environments and climates. These
practices also promote soil fertility in farming systems.

d) Climate - indigenous communities in Africa possess knowledge of seasonal changes and

weather prediction. This is done by observing activities like migration patterns of wildlife.

e) Technology - indigenous technological knowledge in Africa includes craftsmanship, tool

making and construction techniques. Traditional methods of pottery, weaving, basketry and
metalwork display the skills and knowledge passed down through generations.

f) Education - indigenous education in Africa involves oral traditions and storytelling. Elders
pass down knowledge through storytelling, proverbs and folktales thereby preserving cultural
values and history.

g) Environmental conservation - African indigenous communities have developed

sustainable practices for conserving natural resources. This includes the protection of sacred
natural sites such as trees, hills and mountains, rotational farming and controlled burning.

h) Astronomy - indigenous African communities possess detailed knowledge of stars,

lunar cycles and heavenly body navigation. Astronomy plays an important role in
agricultural practices, seasonal calendars and cultural ceremonies, reflecting the
indigenous knowledge systems.

11
i) Arts - Indigenous arts, such as music, dance and visual arts, often display cultural symbols
and spiritual concepts reflecting the interconnectedness between art, people and community.

Explaining how the indigenous systems were used for sustainability of life

 Indigenous knowledge is 
deeply rooted in the environment and cultural cohesion of
indigenous communities.

 
Indigenous knowledge has helped communities to maintain sustainable use and
management of natural resources to protect their environments.

The indigenous knowledge systemsplay a role in nature conservation, food production and
management of forestry and land.

Using indigenous and modern knowledge to manage peer influence in the society

Application of Indigenous Knowledge Systems in Africa in Day-to-Day Life

a) Indigenous farming techniques, seed preservation and knowledge of local crops contribute
to sustainable agriculture and food security in African communities.

b) Indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants and healing practices continues to play an

important role in healthcare, especially in rural areas where access to modern medicine may
be limited.

c) Indigenous knowledge about weather patterns and seasonal indicators helps communities
to adapt to climate change and manage natural resources sustainably.

12
Poverty Reduction

Poverty reduction is a global goal aimed at improving the lives of people living in
  that everyone has access to basic necessities and opportunities for
poverty and ensuring
a better future.

 
It involves efforts to reduce poverty by addressing its root causes and implementing
strategies to uplift individuals, families and communities out of poverty.

Poverty is when someone is  unable to meet the minimum they require to live a
comfortable and healthy life.
  It means not having enough food, clothes or a safe place to live.

 
It can also mean not being able to go to school or get medical care

Causes of poverty in Africa

The following are some causes of poverty in Africa.
a) Limited access to quality education - this hinders individuals' ability to acquire the
necessary skills and knowledge for better jobs and economic opportunities.

b) Unemployment - this contributes to low incomes and limited economic growth, leading
to widespread poverty.

c) Agricultural challenges - the majority of Africans rely on agriculture for their livelihoods,
but factors such as limited access to modern farming techniques, unpredictable weather patterns
and land degradation can hinder agricultural productivity and lead to poverty.

d) Political instability and conflict - this disrupts economic activities, damage infrastructure,
displace populations, and divert resources away from poverty alleviation efforts.

e) Limited access to credit and financial services - those in rural areas have limited access to
credit and banking services, making it difficult for them to start businesses, invest or save for
the future.

Exploring home grown practical solutions to poverty reduction

 Home grown solutions refer to locally developed and implemented strategies and plans
 that are used to address specific challenges and needs within a community or region
 Home-grown solutions to poverty reduction in Africa are solutions that we
generate ourselves to help reduce poverty.
  Examples of these solutions include lowering population growth rate.
 A high population means a high dependency ratio which reduces investment leading
 to poverty.
 To control population growth, we must discourage child marriages and at the same
 time increase female education.
 This will open opportunities for the girl-child for greater empowerment and
 eventually, population growth will slow down.
 Increasing food production to feed the population, there should be provision of credit to
farmers and extension services to help increase crop production. By doing this, farmers

13
 will purchase farm inputs and benefit from advice and eventually increase production
on their land, hence more food on the table.
 People must also adopt smart climate agriculture that not only increases food
production but also checks environmental degradation.

Effects of over exploitation of natural resources on poverty in Africa

The following are some effects of over exploitation of natural resources on poverty in Africa.
a) Loss of livelihoods - over exploitation of resources such as forests, fisheries and minerals
often leads to the loss of livelihoods for communities dependent on these resources leading
to poverty.

b) Food insecurity - unsustainable agricultural practices such as exploitation of land and water
resources, can result in reduced crop yields and food scarcity which can lead to poverty
among communities that rely on agriculture.

c) Environmental degradation - over exploitation of natural resources contributes to

environmental degradation, including deforestation, soil degradation and desertification,
soil erosion and water pollution. This makes it difficult for communities to engage in
sustainable agriculture practices, access clean water or benefit from ecosystem services
hence leads to poverty

Sustainable use of resources in the community

Importance of poverty reduction in the society

 To ensure that all members of the society have access to adequate food, clean
 water, shelter, healthcare, education and other basic needs.
 To create a more equal society, where everyone has equal opportunities to grow and
succeed irrespective of their socio-economic background.
 To create safer and more stable environments.

14
Population structure
 Population structure is the composition, distribution and characteristics of a
 population in a given region.
 Population structure includes various factors such as the number of individuals,
their age distribution, gender distribution, ethnic or racial composition, educational
levels, employment status and other demographic characteristics.

Identifying sources of population data in Kenya and Germany

The following are sources of population data in Kenya and Germany
a) Government agencies which are:
1. Kenya National Bureau of Statistics (KNBS) - This is the primary government
agency responsible for collecting, publishing and sharing statistical data in Kenya.
2. Federal Statistical Office of Germany (Destatis) - This is the central authority
responsible for collecting, processing and sharing official statistical data in Germany.

b) Population and household census - a population census counts the entire population
and housing information such as social and economic status.

c) Household sample survey - various surveys are conducted by research institutions and
private organizations of a country. These surveys focus on specific population groups or
topics such as migration or health.

d) Administrative records - government agencies and departments in Kenya and

Germany maintain administrative records such as births, marriages, taxation records and
migration of people.

Factors determining population structure in Kenya and Germany

a) The population structure in Kenya has been influenced by the following factors:
 High birth rate: refers to a situation where the number of births within a population is
relatively high over a specific period. It indicates a higher rate of population growth due
 to the increase in the number of newborns.
 High death rate: refers to a situation where the number of deaths within a population
 is relatively high over a specific period.
 High fertility rate: refers to a situation where the average number of children born to
women within a population is relatively high over a specific period. It indicates a
 higher rate of childbearing and population growth.
 Low life expectancy: refers to a situation where the average number of years a person
is expected to live is relatively short within a specific population or region. It indicates a
higher mortality rate and shorter overall lifespan compared to other time periods.

b) The population structure for Germany has been influenced by the following factors:
 Low birth rate: refers to a situation where the number of births within a population is
relatively low over a specific period. It indicates a lower rate of population growth due
to a decrease in the number of newborns.

15
  Low death rate: refers to a situation where the number of deaths within a population
is relatively low over a specific period. It indicates a lower rate of mortality and a
 longer overall lifespan compared to other areas or time periods.
 Low fertility rate refers to a situation where the average number of children born to
women within a population is relatively low over a specific period. It indicates a
 lower rate of childbearing and a decrease in population growth potential.
 High life expectancy refers to a situation where the average number of years a person
is expected to live is relatively long within a specific population or region. It indicates a
lower mortality rate and an extended overall lifespan compared to other areas or time
 periods.
 Immigration refers to the act of individuals or groups moving from one country or
region to another with the intention of settling permanently. Therefore, the
population structure for Germany has a relatively higher ageing population than the
young population.

c) The population structure of a country determines the shape of the population pyramid (age-sex
pyramid).

Constructing age sex population pyramids of Kenya and Germany

1. A population or age-sex pyramid is a graph that represents the population structure of
a country.

2. It has the following features:

1. A title at the top
2. Age-groups
3. The females on the right and males on the left
4. Population figures at the bottom
5. Horizontal bars representing the number of males and females in different age groups.

3. The population pyramid of a developing country has a broad base while that of
a developed country has a narrow base.

Pupils activity
Page 83-87

Significance of population structure in distribution of national resources in a

society Pupils activity
Page 88

16
Compare and contrast the population structure of Kenya and germany
The following are among the similarities between the population structures of Kenya and
Germany:
a) Migration patterns – each country has experienced or continues to experience both internal
and international migration. Germany has attracted immigrants for employment while in Kenya,
there is a significant internal migration from rural to urban areas, leading to population growth
in cities. There is also significant migration of Kenyans to other countries for further studies and
work.
b) Gender imbalance – while the extent may vary, all three countries face some degree of
gender imbalance in their population structures.

The following are the differences between population structures in Kenya and Germany:
KENYA GERMANY
It has a low urban population It has a high urban population
It has a lower life expectancy compared to It has a relatively high life expectancy
Germany
It has a large population of youthful population It has a high aging population with a growing
proportion
It has high birth rates compared to Germany It has been experiencing low birth rates for
several years .
This has resulted in a declining population
growth rate

17
Peaceful conflict resolution
PEACEFUL CONFLICT RESOLUTION is a process that emphasizes dialogue,
understanding and cooperation to reach mutually beneficial solutions.
It promotes non violence, empathy and respect for all parties involved.

Types of peace for sustainable social interactions

The following are types of peace in the society.
a) Personal peace - refers to an individual's state of inner calm, harmony and absence of
conflict or violence in their personal life. Personal peace promotes good relationships between
a person and other people.

b) Interpersonal peace - refers to positive and conflict-free relationships between

individuals, including friends, community members and family.

Conflicts in the community

Conflict is a strong disagreement between people or groups that results in angry arguments.
a) Intra-personal (within a person) - it could be a conflict of goals to be achieved,
frustrations when goals are not achieved or having to carry out many roles.
b) Inter-personal (between two people) - brought about by different, cultures, education
levels, experience, values and family background.
c) Inter-group (between different groups) - could be a conflict between ethnic groups or clans
within the same community brought about by unequal distribution of resources such as land.

Identifying Barriers to peaceful conflict resolution in day to day life

The following are examples of barriers to peaceful conflict resolution in day-to-day life.

a) Poor or ineffective communication. When people don't express their needs, concerns
or emotions clearly, misunderstandings and conflicts can intensify.

b) Strong emotions such as anger, frustration or fear can hinder conflict resolution.

c) Failing to understand and empathise with the opinions and emotions of others can
hinder conflict resolution.

d) Differences in cultural backgrounds or values can create barriers to conflict resolution.

The following are some of the ways of overcoming barriers to peaceful conflict resolution.
a) Improving communication skills by enhancing active listening, effective expression
and clarity in communication.

b) Developing conflict resolution skills to encourage collaborative problem-solving.

c) Creating a safe and non-judgemental space where individuals feel comfortable

expressing their opinions and concerns without fear of judgement.

18
d) Practising patience and flexibility to promote a mindset that values collaboration and
finding common ground.

Ways of managing emotions in promotion of peace in the community

a) Peace walks or rallies - organizing peaceful walks or rallies where community members come
together to express their commitment to peace can promote peace in the society.

b) Community dialogues - holding community dialogues where community members can

engage in open and respectful conversations about issues affecting the community.

c) Community service projects - engaging community members in service projects that

promote peace and harmony.

Embracing peace initiatives and agreements at the community level for harmonious living

Pupils’ activity
Page 100-101

19
Healthy relationship
 Sustaining healthy relationships means nurturing relationships, understanding each
 other's needs and working together to overcome challenges.
 Learning how to sustain healthy relationships is a lifelong skill that can bring
 us happiness and fulfilment.
 We can sustain healthy relationships with our parents, siblings, friends, schoolmates
or neighbours.

Ways of sustaining relationships in the community

The following are some of the ways of sustaining healthy relationships in the community.
a) Actively engaging with others in meaningful conversations by asking questions and showing
genuine interest in other people's lives. This helps to create a stronger connection that promotes a
sense of belonging.

b) Setting and respecting boundaries. Communicating boundaries clearly and respectfully

helps to establish mutual respect and ensures that everyone feels comfortable and valued.

c) Practising empathy by putting yourself in other people's shoes helps to create a supportive
and understanding environment in a relationship hence sustains healthy relationships.

d) Being reliable and trustworthy is important in sustaining healthy relationships by

keeping confidence and demonstrating integrity in your actions and words.

e) Showing appreciation and gratitude helps to strengthen relationships hence sustaining

healthy relationships. This includes small gestures such as saying thank you.

Barriers to harmonious relationship

The following are among the barriers to harmonious relationships:
 Misunderstandings: Sometimes, people may not understand each other's
 feelings, thoughts, or actions, leading to conflicts or confusion.
 Poor communication: When people do not talk or listen to each other, it becomes
 challenging to understand each other's needs and resolve conflicts peacefully.
 Lack of empathy: If someone does not understand or consider how others feel, it
 can create distance and make it hard to build positive connections.
 Unfairness: When people are treated unfairly or when there are unequal opportunities,
 it can create barriers to harmonious relationships.
 Lack of respect: When people do not show respect for others' opinions, boundaries,
or differences, it can make it challenging to promote harmonious relationships.

Using strategies to overcome barriers to healthy relationship

Pupil’s activity
Pages 105-107

20
NATURAL AND HISTORIC BUILT
ENVIRONMENT TOPOGRAPHICAAL MAPS
 Topographical maps provide a detailed representation of the Earths;s surface,
 showcasing its natural and natural and man made features.
 These maps use contour lines symbols and colours to show the physical
characteristics and human activities of an area

Human activities on topographical maps

 A human activity is an activity that is carried out by human. Examples of human activities
are crop cultivation, transportation, animal rearing and education among others.

Human activities can be divided into:

1. Social activities – these are activities that are associated with people living together
and providing services that make life comfortable. Such activities include medical
services, provision of education, human settlements as well as administration.
2. Economic activities - these are activities carried out by human beings in order to earn
a living. These may include crop cultivation, cattle rearing, fishing, transport and
lumbering among others.

 Human activities in topographical maps are ways in which human beings have made use
of the land represented on a map.

Using creative and critical thinking skills to enlarge and reduce parts of
topographical maps
Pupil’s activity
Page 112

Enlarging parts of topographical maps

  The enlargement of a map extract is an activity in which the size of the map is increased.


 When enlarging a given map extract, you multiply the length and width of the map by the given
factor, say by 2.

 
A map can also be enlarged by dividing the scale of the original map. When enlarging the map,
you divide the denominator of the scale of the original map by the given factor.

 is enlarged by 2, then
For example, if the scale of the original map is 1: 50,000 and the map
you divide the denominator of the scale by 2 to give you 1:25,000.
 
An enlarged map shows more details than the original map.

When enlarging a part of a topographical map:

 Identify the part that you intend to enlarge,
  note the eastings and northings within which the area is enclosed,
 measure the length and width of the map using a ruler and write down the
 measurements in your notebook,
 Convert the measurements you have recorded by multiplying with the enlargement factor,
 for example, multiply the length and width by 2 and note down the new measurements,
 If the length of the map extract was 4 cm, it then becomes 8 cm. Likewise, if the width
of the map extract was 3 cm, it then becomes 6 cm.

21
Reducing parts of topographical maps
a) The reduction of a map extract is an activity in which the size of the map is made smaller.

b) When reducing a given map extract, divide the length and width of a map by the given
factor, say by 2.

c) A map can also be reduced by multiplying the scale of the original map.

d) Multiply the denominator of the scale of the original map by the given factor.

e) For example, if the scale of the original map is 1:50,000, and the map is reduced by 2,
then you multiply the denominator of the scale by 2 to give you 1:100,000.

f) A reduced map shows fewer details than the original map.

When reducing a part of a topographical map:

a) Identify the part that you intend to reduce.
b) Note the Eastings and Northings within which the area is enclosed.
c) Measure its length and width using a ruler and write down the measurements in
your notebook.
d) Convert the measurements you have recorded by dividing with the reduction factor,
for example, divide the length and width by 2 and note the new measurements.
e) If the length of the map extract was 12 cm, it then becomes 6 cm. Likewise, if the width of
the map extract was 8 cm, it becomes 4 cm.
f) Draw on a graph paper a map with a length of 6 cm and a width of 4 cm.
g) Insert the features shown in the original map within the new frame in their exact places.
h) Appropriately, indicate the Eastings and Northings enclosing the original map.

Illustrating cross section from topographical maps

 A cross section is a diagram drawn from topographical map showing the nature
 of landscape from one identified point to another
 A cross section across the land from one point to the other

Pupil’s activity
Page 118-124

The following procedure is used when drawing a cross-section:

1. Identify the map from where you are to draw the cross-section.
2. Identify the points between which you are to draw the cross-section using the given
grid references or letters and mark them on the map.
3. Join the two points using a pencil line.
4. Pick a blank piece of paper and place it along the line you have drawn.
5. On the blank piece of paper, mark the grid references of the start and end points.
6. Along the edge of the paper, mark the contours, noting where they rise and where
they descend.
7. Note the highest and the lowest contour along your section.

22
 8. Along the same edge, mark the position of the required physical and human features.
9. Once completed, remove the piece of paper, fold the map and put it aside.
10. Pick a piece of graph paper and on it:
a) indicate the title of the cross-section, for example, "A cross-section of Kabe Area from point C
to D",
b) place your piece of paper on the graph paper and mark the starting and end points using
the grid references,
c) indicate the heights on the grid using dots,
d) join up the dots with a curved line,
e) indicate the required features where they appear on the map.

Note: A cross-section should have:

i) a title,
ii) labeled y-axis indicating the unit of height given, for example, "Height in metres",
iii) the correct trend indicating the nature of the landscape,
iv) the required physical and human features named along the section,
v) the starting and finishing points indicated using their respective heights at the two ends of
the curve.

23
Internal land forming process
 Internal land forming process are process that occur within the earths crust and
 shape the landforms on its surface.
 These process are caused by forces originating from the earth, such as heat, pressure
 and the movement of molten rock,
 Internal land forming process include volcanic activity, folding, faulting and uplifting

Types and causes of earth movements in the environment

 Earth movements refer to the displacement that cause changes in the Earth's crust and
surface features. These movements are mainly caused by internal forces within the
earth and cause the adjustment of crustal rocks.
There are two types of earth movements. These are:
a) Horizontal movements – they are also called lateral movements. They are caused by forces
that operate horizontally within the earth's crust. The forces involved in horizontal movements
of the earth's crust are tensional, compressional and shear forces.
b) Vertical movements – these movements are caused by forces that operate vertically, at a
right angle to the earth. They result into raising, lowering or breaking of the earth's crust.

Tensional Forces
a) They are stretching or pulling forces. They pull away the crustal rocks in
opposite directions.
b) When tensional forces are applied to the earth's crust, they cause the rock to
break, forming lines of weakness called faults.
c) More tensional forces make the land between the fault lines to sink
d) The land that sinks forms the rift vally. The steep sides left after the sinking form
an escarpment

Compressional forces
a) These are forces that push against a section of the crust from directly opposite sides.
b) This may result in the breaking of the crustal rocks. While the outer blocks remain
stationary, the middle block may be uplifted by vertical forces as shown in the diagrams.
c) This leads to the formation of landforms such as fault mountains.

Shear forces
a) These are forces that push against adjacent blocks of the crust.
b) They lead to sliding of adjacent blocks of the crust against or over each other.
c) Shearing forces may twist or tear up the crust.

Cause of earth movements in the environment

The following are among the causes of earth movements in the environment:
a) Volcanic activity - vents or cracks, called magma, comes out. When the pressure builds
up inside the earth, the magma can burst out, causing a volcanic eruption and the movement
of crustal rocks.

24
b) Plate tectonics - the earth is made up of giant puzzle pieces called tectonic plates. These
plates are always moving, although very slowly. Sometimes, they bump into each other, move
apart or slide past each other, causing earth movements.

c) Gravitational force - this causes landslides when rocks, soil, or debris move down a slope due
to gravity. Heavy rain or human activities can weaken the stability of the slope, making it easy
to slide. Gravity pulls the loose material downhill, causing a landslide.

d) Earthquakes - they happen when there is a sudden release of energy in the Earth's crust.
This energy is built up over time due to the movement and interaction of tectonic plates. When
the stress becomes too great, the rocks break and move, causing the ground to shake.

e) Isostatic adjustment - this happens due to erosion when natural forces, like wind and water,
wear away the Earth's surface over time. It can also be caused by human activities, such as
deforestation. Erosion can lead to changes in the landscape, including the formation of valleys.

Theories of continental drift and plate tectonics in the formation of

continents The Continental Drift theory
 The Continental Drift theory explains the formation of the continents and their
 present locations.
 It states that originally, there was one super continent called Pangaea.
  Pangaea was surrounded by a large water body called Panthalassa.
 Due to convectional currents within the mantle, Pangaea broke into two huge
continents, Laurasia in the northern hemisphere and Gondwanaland in the southern
 hemisphere. They were separated by a sea called Tethys.
 Later, Laurasia broke up to form Europe, North America and Asia.
 Gondwanaland broke up to form Africa, South America and Australia.
 The continents then drifted to their current positions.
 The drifting of the continents continues even today.

Plate Tectonics theory

 The Plate Tectonics theory explains the formation of the continents and their
 current positions.
 It states that the earth's crust is divided into semi-rigid blocks called tectonic plates.
 The plates float on the molten magma in the mantle.
  The plates have distinct boundaries.
 The plates move, relative to each other, either away from each other, towards each
 other or alongside each other.
 Each plate either carries a continent or an ocean.

Differentiating various types of faults in the environment

 Faulting is the breaking or fracturing of crustal rocks.
 It occurs within crustal rocks due to earth’s movement
When crustal rocks are under pressure, they break in different ways depending on:

25
i) The amount of pressure.
ii) The direction of movement of the force.

The breaking of crustal rocks occurs differently depending on the forces affecting the crustal
rocks. It occurs due to the following:
i) When the rocks are subjected to tensional forces pulling crustal rocks in different directions.
ii) When the rocks are subjected to shear forces acting horizontally on the rocks.
iii) When the rocks are subjected to compressional forces pushing towards each other
and squeezing the rocks.
iv) When crustal rocks are subjected to vertical forces exerting a strain on the rocks
which eventually break.

Type of fault
1. Normal fault
It is formed when the forces acting on crustal rocks are tensional forces. They pull the
crustal rocks in different directions, causing them to break.
2. Reverse fault
It is formed when the forces acting on crustal rocks are compressional forces. They push
towards each other causing crustal rocks to break. One block of crustal rocks may be pushed
over the opposite block.
3. Thrust fault
It is formed when the forces acting on crustal rocks are compressional forces. Unlike in
reverse faults, they cause the crustal rocks to break at a very low angle. The block on the left-
hand side rides over the block on the right-hand side.
4. Vertical fault
It is formed when the forces on which the crustal rocks are subjected to are acting vertically
within the crustal rocks. They push one block upwards or downwards as the other one
remains stationary
5. Shear or transform fault
It is formed when the forces acting on the crustal rocks are acting horizontally within the
crustal rocks. They push the two blocks of crustal rocks alongside each other.

Illustrating the formation of selected features due to faulting in the environment

The formation of the following features due to faulting in the environment.
a) Rift valley
The rift valley was formed in three different ways:
1. By tensional forces where the crustal rocks were subjected to tensional forces. This led
to the formation of normal faults. The crustal rocks broke with the middle block sinking
to form depression. This depression, bordered by steep slopes, is a rift valley.
2. By compressional forces where the crustal rocks were subjected to compressional forces.
The crustal rocks broke forming two reverse faults. The outer blocks were thrust over
the middle block. When the overhanging blocks finally broke up, they exposed a valley
which is called rift valley as shown

26
 3. By anticlinal arching where flexible crustal rocks were subjected to compressional
forces. The crustal rocks bent upwards and eventually broke to form a series of faults.
Later, the rocks subsided along the fault lines to form a depression called a rift valley

b) A fault scarp
Is also known as an escarpment. It is formed by both tensional and compressional forces.
a) Tensional forces. - The crustal rocks were subjected to tensional forces. They broke to form
a normal fault. When subsidence occurred, one block subsided down to expose a steep slope
along the fault. The steep slope is known as a fault scarp, as shown in the diagrams.
b)Compressional Forces - When crustal rocks were subjected to compressional forces, a reverse
fault was formed. One block thrusted over the other one, hanging on top of it. When the hanging
masses of rock were destroyed and collapsed, they exposed a steep slope. This is known as a fault
scarp

c) Fault steps
Are formed when multiple faults were formed by tensional forces. When subsidence of the
crustal rocks happened, the blocks sunk to different levels along the faults. This formed a
series of faults. These are called fault steps

a) Faulting occurs due to the following forces acting on crustal rocks:

i) Tensional forces
ii) Compressional forces
iii) Shear forces
iv) Vertical forces
v) Thrust forces

b) Different types of faults are formed when faulting occurs. These are:
i) Normal faults
ii) Reverse faults
iii) Thrust faults
iv) Anticlinal faults
v) Shear faults

c) When faulting occurs, the following features are formed in the environment:
i) A rift valley
ii) Fault scarp
iii) Fault steps
iv) Depressions which may be occupied by lakes
v) Fault blocks

Significance of faulting to human activities

The following are the significance of faulting to human activities:
a) Understanding faulting helps scientists and engineers make buildings and structures that
can withstand earthquakes, keeping people safe.

27
b) Faulting creates unique landscapes and features on the Earth's surface, such as mountains
and valleys. These features attract tourists to the countries where they are located hence earning
the country foreign exchange.

c) Some faults provide opportunities for generating clean energy, such as hydroelectric
power from rivers along the fault lines.

d) Scientists study faulting to learn more about the Earth's history and how it changes over
time, helping us understand our planet better.

Recognising internal land forming processes in shaping the landscape and their
influence on human activities
 There are four internal land forming processes. These are faulting, folding,
 vulcanicity and earthquakes.
 They have their origin in the interior of the earth. When they take place, many
features are formed on the surface of the earth. These include mountains, hills, valleys
 and depressions.
 The mountains formed are tourist attractions which earn revenue to the countries
 where they are located.
 High rainfall on the windward side of the mountains promotes agriculture and settlement.
 Lower rainfall on the leeward side of the mountains encourages livestock farming.
 The hills formed are at times a hindrance to transport. Constructing a road in hilly areas
 is slow and expensive.
 The soils formed when volcanic rocks are deposited on the surface, break down and
 are rich in minerals, promoting agriculture.
 Rivers flowing from volcanic mountains are big and permanent, providing water for
domestic use, fishing, irrigation and generation of hydroelectric power.

28
Multipurpose river projects in Africa
Multi purpose river projects Involve the construction of dams, reservoirs canal and hydraulic
structures to manage water resources and maximize their utlisation for various socio economic
benefits

Identifying selected multi purpose river projects on a map of Africa

29
Outlining the conditions that led to the establishment of multi purpose river projects
along river tana
The following are conditions that led to the establishment of multi-purpose river projects
along River Tana.

a) Energy demand - As Kenya's population and economy grew, so did the demand for energy.
River Tana's water flow and hydroelectric potential made it a main source for generating clean
and renewable energy, helping to meet the country's increasing energy needs.

b) Flood control - seasonal flooding along the River Tana posed risks to infrastructure and
human life. Constructing dams and reservoirs as part of the projects aimed to regulate water flow
and control flooding.

c) Water availability - River Tana is a major source of water in Kenya, making it an

attractive option for development projects. The availability of water along the river provided
the foundation for irrigation, thus increasing food security.

d) Water scarcity - downstream areas of River Tana faced water scarcity issues, affecting
both communities and agriculture. The establishment of river projects aimed to regulate the
river's flow, ensuring a consistent water supply for domestic use.ning the economic

Examining the economic importance of multi purpose river projects in Africa

The following are some economic importance of multi-purpose river projects in Africa:

 Electricity generated at the power stations saves the countries in Africa a lot of
foreign
exchange. It is an alternative to thermal power produced from imported diesel.

 The lake formed by Aswan  High Dam is an important tourist attraction, earning the
country's foreign exchange.

Electricity from the river projects has enabled countries in Africa to expand the
 manufacturing industries. This has created employment opportunities which has helped
to improve the living standards of people.

The projects have led to the development of towns in Africa such as Aswan Town in
Egypt as the people were attracted there by the availability of water and social
 amenities. Lake Nasser has therefore promoted urbanisation in the region, creating
settlements for the people.

Irrigation of arid land in Egypt has led to the production of large amounts of crops like
cotton, maize, millet, rice,
dates and beans which are exported to other countries and
also ensure food security.

Assessing challenges facing multi-purpose river projects in Africa The

following are challenges facing multi-purpose river projects in Africa.
a) Pollution – multi-purpose river projects often suffer from pollution due to industrial
waste, agricultural runoff and improper disposal of garbage and sewage. This pollution can
harm aquatic life and degrade water.

b) Resettlement and displacement – constructing dams and reservoirs may require moving
people from their homes, which can be disruptive and challenging to the affected communities.

30
c) Water management – balancing the needs of various users such as agriculture, industry
and communities can be difficult, especially in regions with limited water resources.

d) Climate change – changing weather patterns and water availability due to climate change
can affect the reliability and sustainability of multi-purpose river projects.

Designing solutions to challenges facing multi purpose river projects in Africa

The following are the possible solutions to challenges facing multi-purpose river projects
in Africa.
a) Regulating the amount of water used depending on crop needs and climate to address
water scarcity.

b) Planting trees can address deforestation in water catchment areas or river sources which
will also help to reduce soil erosion.

c) Use of organic fertilisers that will raise yields without destroying the soils in areas
that initially depended on silt from the river to supply required nutrients.

d) Governments and project developers conducting comprehensive resettlement planning

to address the issue of displacement of people.

31
Management and Conservation of the Environment

The management and conservation of the environment involves efforts and
 strategies aimed 
at protecting, preserving and sustainably utilising natural resources
and ecosystems.

 issues such as
It consists of a wide range of actions and practices that address environmental
reducing waste generation and promoting the efficient use of resources.

Distinguishing between management and conservation of the environment

Management of the environment is the control of human effects on the environment. It
involves the following:
i) Coming up with policies on the environment.
ii) Planning the activities to be carried out.
iii) Implementing the policies.
iv) Evaluating to see whether the policies are working.
v) Reviewing the policies to make them effective.

Conservation of the environment is the practice of preserving and protecting the natural
environment and its resources from destruction for use by the present and future generations.

The differences between management of the environment and conservation of the environment.
Management of the environment Conservation of the environment
a) It involves planning and implementing a a) It involves the protection or preservation of
plan to ensure effective and proper utilization available resources for the future.
of available resources in the environment.
b) It focuses on short to medium-term goals, b) It focuses on long-term goals to protect
often driven by economic considerations and natural resources and biodiversity for future
immediate needs. generations.

FACTORS that lead to degradation of the environment in the community Degradation of

the environment is the destruction decline or negative modification of the natural environment
and its components due to various human activities and natural process
 
The following are factors that can lead to degradation of the environment.


a) Pollution - various forms of pollution such as air pollution, water pollution and soil
pollution can have negative effects on the environment.

b) Deforestation - clearing of forests for agriculture, urbanisation, logging and fuelwood

collection contributes to deforestation. This destroys habitats and disrupts ecosystems leading
to soil erosion, climate change and loss of natural resources.

c) Industrial activities - industries that engage in the production of goods and services can
have negative effects on the environment such as over exploitation of raw materials.

32
 d) Agricultural practices - excessive use of pesticides, fertilisers and monocropping can
lead to soil degradation and water pollution.

The effects of environmental degradation in the community

The following are among effects of environmental degradation in the community.

a) Health risks – degraded environments can lead to significant health risks to the community.
Air pollution, water pollution and contaminated soil can lead to respiratory problems and
other illnesses.

b) Water scarcity – degradation of water bodies such as rivers, lakes and groundwater can lead
to water scarcity in the community.

c) Soil erosion - unsustainable land practices such as deforestation and improper agricultural
techniques contribute to soil erosion. This leads to the loss of fertile land and reduced
agricultural productivity in the community.

d) Climate change impacts - greenhouse gas emissions and deforestation contributes to

climate change. Climate change, in turn, leads to more frequent and extreme weather events,
such as floods.

Designing measures to manage and conserve the environment for sustainability

1. Plant trees to protect the soils from erosion and reduce global warming
2. Avoid careless disposal of waste
3. Use terraces while farming on steep slopes.
4. Walk over short distances, cycle or use electric cars to reduce the use of vehicles as
their fumes contaminate the air.
5. Re-cycle materials like paper to reduce the cutting down of trees.
6. Sensitise the people on the need to manage and conserve the environment.

Importance of managing and conserving the environment.

The following are some of the importance of managing and conserving the environment.
a) Preservation of biodiversity- the environment is home to countless species of plants,
animals, and microorganisms.
b) Climate regulation- forests, oceans, and other natural environments absorb and store
carbon (IV) oxide, a greenhouse gas responsible for climate change. By protecting and
restoring these ecosystems, we can reduce the effects of climate change.
c) Human health and well-being- by managing and conserving the environment, we can reduce
exposure to harmful pollutants as well as improve access to clean water and sanitation.
d) Economic benefits- many industries rely on natural resources and ecosystem services for
their operations, including agriculture, fishing, forestry, and tourism. By conserving the
environment, long-term sustainability of these industries is ensured such as job creation and
economic stability.

33
World heritage sites in Africa
  
World heritage sites are globally recognized places of outstanding value.

 They are considered to be treasure of humanity and are preserved for future generations to
appreciate and learn from.
  
They can include
1. Archaeological sites
2. Historic monuments
3. Natural parks
4. Unique land formations

Locating the selected world heritage sites in Africa

a) A world heritage site is a unique place in the world that is considered extremely important
and valuable. It can be a beautiful natural area, like a forest, a coral reef, a nature reserve, a
national park or a man-made structure, like an ancient temple or a historic city.
b) World heritage sites are chosen because they have something unique or amazing about
them, like their history, culture or how they look.

WORLD HERITAGE SITE WHERE IT IS LOCATED

Rock hewn churches Etthiopia
Robben island South Africa
Seregenti national park Tanzania
Victoria falls Zambia
Valle de mai nature reserves Seychelles
Pyramids of Giza Egypt

Importance of the selected world heritage sites in promoting cultural heritage

The following are the importance of the selected world heritage sites in promoting cultural
heritage.

a) They serve as reminders of our past, allowing us to maintain a connection with our
ancestors and our traditions.

b) They offer an understanding of different cultures, traditions and historical periods.

c) They attract tourists hence promoting economic development of the local communities.

d) They provide a tangible link between generations. They enable the transmission of
cultural knowledge, traditions and values from older to younger generations.

Measures to conserve the selected world heritage sites

a) Raise awareness about the importance of world heritage sites and their conservation
among local communities, schools and visitors.

b) Promote sustainable tourism practices such as encouraging responsible tourist behaviour.

34
c) Engage local communities in the conservation efforts of world heritage sites.

d) Support initiatives that focus on the preservation and restoration of world heritage sites.

e) Encourage public engagement through events and cultural activities that promote
the appreciation and conservation of world heritage sites.

35
POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS AND
GOVERNANCE The Constitution of Kenya
A constitution is a set of agreed principles and rules which state the structure and powers of
government and relationship between the rulers and the ruled.

Identifying stages in the constitution making process in

Kenya The stages of the constitution-making process in Kenya
1. Debating over controversial issues.
2. Collection of public views.
3. Civic education.
4. Convening of constitutional conferences.
5. Drafting of the constitution.
6. Referendum.
7. Enacting or passing of the constitution.
8. Promulgation of the constitution.

The following are the stages in the constitution-making process in Kenya:

 Debate over controversial issues. Issues like the establishment of section 2A in the
independence constitution in 1991 raised concerns among involved parties and groups.
The issue of whether to include the position of Prime Minister or not has also been
debated for many years.

 Collection of public views. Public views are collected by the Constitution of
Kenya Review Commission (CKRC).

 Civic education. The public is sensitized and educated on the Bill.

 Convening of constitutional conferences. For example, the 2002 National Constitution
 Conference at Bomas of Kenya came up with the Bomas Draft.
 Drafting of the constitution. This involves both local and international experts who
draft the constitution which was the case between 2000 and 2010.

 The referendum. The draft constitution is subjected to a referendum where people
give their views on a specific question presented to them through voting.

 Enacting or passing of the constitution. The National Assembly passes the Bill.

 Promulgation of the constitution. The constitution is adopted and made effective.

Examining the role of parliament in constitution making process

The following are some of the roles of the parliament in the constitution-making process in
Kenya:
a) Debates the content of the constitution.
b) Passes the laws setting up the process of constitution-making.
c) Appoints members of the constitution-making commission.

36
d) Approves the necessary funds for the constitution-making process.
e) Supports the implementation of the constitution through legislation.

Exploring the role of citizens in constitution-making process

The following are among the roles of citizens in the constitution making process in Kenya
1. Providing their opinions, suggestions and feedback during public constultation in
the constitution making process
2. Educating themselves about the constitution-making process, the content of the
proposed constitution and its potential effects.
3. Exercising their right to vote during a referendum which directly influences the
outcome of the referendum and the fate of the proposed constitution.
4. After the adoption of a new constitution, citizens have an ongoing role in monitoring
its implementation and holding elected officials accountable.

Participating in the constitution making process as a responsible

citizen Pupil’s activity
Page 184-186

Defending and promoting the constitution of Kenya

The following are ways to defend and promote the constitution of Kenya
1. Participating in the election
2. Reporting corruption
3. Promoting gender equality
4. Engaging in activities that protect and preserve the environment

37
Civic engagement in governance
 Civic engagement is the active participation of citizens in their communities,
 societies and the democratic process.
 It involves individuals and groups taking an active role in addressing public issues,
promoting social change and contributing to the well being of their communities

Identifying individual and collective civic engagement activities in Kenya

 Civic engagement refers to the active involvement and participation of individuals
in their communities and societies as a whole. It involves participating in activities
 and actions that contribute to the betterment of society.
 Civic engagement activities include volunteering in community service activities,
participating in voting and attending public meetings and being informed about and
discussing public affairs.

Individual and collective civic engagement activities in Kenya

 Volunteering to local organisations or community projects such as cleaning
and mentorship activities in the community.
  Joining support campaigns focused on social, environmental or human rights issues.
 Promoting awareness of rights, responsibilities and civic processes among community
 members.
 Engaging in activities that promote environmental sustainability such as tree
planting, waste management or energy conservation initiatives.

Exploring the basic constitutional requirements for political parties

The following are the basic constitutional requirements for political parties as stipulated in
Article 91 of the Constitution of Kenya. They should:
  Have a national outlook,
  
Have a democratically elected governing body,
  
Promote and uphold national unity,
  
respect the right of all people to participate in the political process,

 
Abide by the democratic principles of good governance, promote and practice democracy through
regular, fair and free elections within the party,
  respect and promote human rights and fundamental freedoms, gender equality and equity,
 
Promote the objectives and principles of the constitution.

Illustrating the role of political parties in democratic governance

The following are the roles of political parties in democratic governance:
a) They formulate policies and programmes on how to run the government.
b) They mobilize people to participate in important public affairs.
c) They link the government and the people.
d) They act as a training ground for political leadership.
e) Opposition parties take part in decision-making.

Outlining positions vied for in a general election in Kenya

1. President
2. MCA – member of county assembly

38
 3. MP – member of national assembly
4. Senator
5. Governor
6. Women representative

Exhibiting values that promote ethical civic engagement in the community

The following are among values that promote ethical civic engagement in the community:
a) Social justice - this promotes fairness, equality and inclusivity within the community.
By upholding social justice, individuals and communities strive to address systemic
inequalities and work towards creating a more equitable society.
b) Integrity - this value emphasizes honesty and transparency. Ethical civic engagement
requires making ethical choices, taking responsibility for one's actions and upholding
the highest standards of honesty and integrity.
c) Peace - this promotes non-violence, cooperation and harmony within the
community. Ethical civic engagement involves actively seeking peaceful resolutions
to conflicts, promoting understanding and empathy

39
Kenya’s bill of rights
The Bill of Rights in the Constitution of Kenya acknowledges and protects the
fundamental rights and freedoms of every individual in the country.

Exploring Kenya's Bill of Rights for mutual well-being


  that spells out the rights of the people in a country in
The Bill of Rights is a document
relation to their government.
 
It recognises and protects human rights and fundamental freedoms in order to preserve
the dignity of individuals and communities.
The Bill of Rights in Kenya is found in Chapter Four of the Constitution, specifically Articles
19 to 59.

a) Right to life, dignity and protection from torture and cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment.

b) Protection of privacy, including the right not to have one's home or personal property
searched or invaded without a just cause.

c) Equality and freedom from discrimination on various grounds, such as race, gender,
religion, ethnicity and disability.

d) Economic and social rights, including the right to education, healthcare, housing and social
security.

e) Rights of children, including protection from child labour, exploitation and abuse.

f) Rights of marginalised groups, including indigenous communities, persons with

disabilities and the elderly.

Examining human rights of special groups for promotion of social justice and inclusivity

 
Special groups in society can refer to various disadvantaged or populations at risk who may
face specific challenges or require targeted support.
 
Examples of special groups in society include refugees, the elderly, migrants, persons
with disabilities and ethnic and racial minorities among others.
Human rights of elderly
1. Right to fully participate in community affairs
2. Right to pursue their personal development
3. Right to receive reasonable care and assistance from family and state

Human rights of refugees

1. Freedom of movement
2. Right access medical care
3.
Human right of migrants
1. Right to equality before the law.
2. Freedom from discrimination
3. Right to protection from torture

40
Application of the Bill of rights for harmonious living
The following are some ways of applying the bill of rights for harmonious living.
1. Encouraging people to express them selves freely while they respect the rights of others.
2. Ensuring all individuals are equal before the law and forbid discrimination.
3. Protecting the freedom of assembly and association
4. Ensuring equal access to quality education for all individuals, promoting
knowledge, understanding and the development of critical thinking

Cultivating empathy and solidarity with special groups in society for mutual
social responsibility

 Empathy is the ability to emotionally understand
what other people feel, see things from their
point of view and imagine yourself in their place.

 
Solidarity is an awareness of shared interests, objectives, standards and sympathies
creating a psychological sense of unity of groups or classes

 
The following are some of the ways of cultivating empathy and solidarity with special groups
in society for mutual social responsibility
1. Encouraging individuals and community organization to actively engage in
volunteer work and community service that directly benefits special groups.
2. Increasing public awareness and understanding of challenges faced by special
groups through educational campaigns, workshops and community events.
3. Organizing cultural exchange programmes that facilitate dialogue
and understanding between different groups in society.
4. Support organizations and initiatives that champion the rights and well being
of special groups.

Embracing respect for human rights in society

Pupil’s activity
Page 206-207

41
Cultural Globalisation

 
Cultural globalization is the interconnectedness and exchange of cultural ideas, values,
practices and products on a global level.


Cultural globalization is influenced by factors such as the development of communication and
transportation technologies, the spread of media and entertainment and migration

Identifying cultural elements and practices that have acquired a global recognition status.

  to the process of cultural exchange and interconnectedness that
Cultural globalization refers
occurs on a global level.

 of cultural practices, ideas, values and products across
It involves the spread and diffusion
different countries and regions.

Examining African cultural practices in promoting a common humanity

a) African socialism is a socio-political system that promotes social justice, collective ownership
and equal distribution of resources in African societies. It emphasizes the welfare of the community
over individual gain, striving to address poverty, inequality and underdevelopment.

b) Ujamaa is a socio-economic policy that emphasizes collective work, cooperation and shared
responsibility within a community. It promotes the idea of equal distribution of resources. It also
promotes a sense of unity and interdependence among community members. Ujamaa seeks to
uplift disadvantaged individuals in the society and create a society where everyone contributes
to and benefits from the collective efforts.

c) The term Ubuntu originates from several Bantu languages spoken in Southern Africa and
is often translated as, "humanity towards others" or "I am because we are".

d) Ubuntu consists of a set of values and principles that promote compassion, empathy,
respect and communal harmony.

The following are among the elements of African socialism, Ujamaa, and Ubuntu
that promote a common humanity:
a) Social justice. This promotes a sense of common humanity by recognising the
fundamental worth and dignity of every person.
b) Compassion and empathy. It contributes to building harmonious relationships and
promoting the well-being of all community members.
c) Communal ownership and cooperation. This cooperative mindset promotes common
humanity by emphasising the idea that everyone's well-being is interconnected.
d) Equal distribution of resources. T

Exploring ways of preserving cultural elements that promote responsible global

citizenship The following are some of the actions to be taken to preserve cultural elements
which promote responsible global citizenship.

a) Cultural awareness and education. Educating people on their cultural heritage as well
as different cultures around the world.

42
b) Volunteering and community engagement. Getting involved in community activities that
promote cultural preservation and responsible global citizenship. For example, cleaning
and maintaining cultural heritage sites.

c) Environmental stewardship. Promoting sustainable practices that respect and protect cultural
sites, natural landscapes and ecosystems that are key to cultural traditions and practices.

d) Language preservation. Making efforts to learn, use and teach your native language.
Preserve and promote linguistic diversity by supporting language exchange programmes and
initiatives that document endangered languages.

Factors that promote healthy cultural relationship and global interconnectedness

Reasons for interconnectedness.

· Trading.
· Technology.
· Tourism.
· Better medical care.
· Investments.
· Education.
· Employment.
· Peacekeeping missions.
· Sports reasons.
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