Critical theory

Critical theory is a social, historical, and political school of thought and philosophical perspective which
centers on analyzing and challenging systemic power relations in society, arguing that knowledge, truth,
and social structures are fundamentally shaped by power dynamics between dominant and oppressed
groups.[1] Beyond just understanding and critiquing these dynamics, it explicitly aims to transform
society through praxis and collective action with an explicit sociopolitical purpose.[2][3][4]

Critical theory's main tenets center on analyzing systemic power relations in society, focusing on the
dynamics between groups with different levels of social, economic, and institutional power.[5][6] Unlike
traditional social theories that aim primarily to describe and understand society, critical theory explicitly
seeks to critique and transform it. Thus, it positions itself as both an analytical framework and a
movement for social change.[7][8][9][3] Critical theory examines how dominant groups and structures
influence what society considers objective truth, challenging the very notion of pure objectivity and
rationality by arguing that knowledge is shaped by power relations and social context.[10][11][7][12] Key
principles of critical theory include examining intersecting forms of oppression, emphasizing historical
contexts in social analysis, and critiquing capitalist structures. The framework emphasizes praxis
(combining theory with action) and highlights how lived experience, collective action, ideology, and
educational systems play crucial roles in maintaining or challenging existing power
structures.[3][13][14][15][16]

The historical evolution of critical theory traces back to the first generation of the Frankfurt School in the
1920s. Figures like Max Horkheimer, Theodor Adorno, Herbert Marcuse, and others sought to expand
traditional Marxist analysis by incorporating insights from psychology, culture, and philosophy, moving
beyond pure economic determinism.[17][1][14][18][19][3][20][7][21][22] Their work was significantly
influenced by Freud’s psychoanalytic theories, particularly how subjective experience shaped human
consciousness, behavior, and social reality.[3][1][18][23][24] Freud's concept that an individual's lived
experience could differ dramatically from objective reality aligned with critical theory's critique of
positivism, science, and pure rationality.[18][25][26]

Critical theory continued to evolve beyond the first generation of the Frankfurt School. Jürgen Habermas,
often identified with the second generation, shifted the focus toward communication and the role of
language in social emancipation.[3] Around the same time, post-structuralist and postmodern thinkers,
including Michel Foucault and Jacques Derrida, were reshaping academic discourse with critiques of
knowledge, meaning, power, institutions, and social control with deconstructive approaches that further
challenged assumptions about objectivity and truth. Though neither Foucault nor Derrida belonged
formally to the Frankfurt School tradition, their works profoundly influenced later formulations of critical
theory.[17][27] Collectively, the post-structuralist and postmodern insights expanded the scope of critical
theory, weaving cultural and linguistic critiques into its Marxian roots.[3][14][17][28][29][30]

With the emigration of Herbert Marcuse, contemporary critical theory has expanded to the United States
and today it covers a wide range of social critique within economics, ethics, history, law, politics,
psychology, and sociology, with a diverse list of subjects including critical animal studies, critical
criminology, dependency theory and imperialism studies, critical environmental justice, feminist theory
and gender studies, critical historiography, intersectionality, critical legal studies, critical pedagogy,
postcolonialism, critical race theory, queer theory, and critical terrorism studies.[3][31][32][33][34][35]
Modern critical theory represents a movement away from Marxism’s purely economic analysis to a
broader examination of social and cultural power structures with the incorporation and transformation of
Freudian concepts and postmodernism, while retaining Marxism’s emphasis on analyzing how dominant
groups and systems shape and control society through exploitation and oppression[36] along with social
and political praxis, the adaptation and reformulation of multiple Marxian conceptual frameworks
(including alienation, reification, ideology, emancipation, base and superstructure), and a general
skepticism towards and critique of capitalism.[18][37][3][20]

Criticism of critical theory have come from various intellectual perspectives. Critics have raised concerns
about critical theory’s reliance on Marxist revisionism[38][39][40] and its frequent emphasis on subjective
narratives, which can sometimes be at odds with empirical methodologies.[41][42][43] They also point to
issues of circular reasoning and a lack of falsifiability in some critical theory arguments, as well as an
epistemological and methodological stance that challenges or conflicts with traditional scientific methods
and ideals of rationality and objectivity.[44][45][46][47][48][49][50]

History
Max Horkheimer first defined critical theory (German: Kritische Theorie) in his 1937 essay "Traditional
and Critical Theory", as a social theory oriented toward critiquing and changing society as a whole, in
contrast to traditional theory oriented only toward understanding or explaining it. Wanting to distinguish
critical theory as a radical, emancipatory form of Marxist philosophy, Horkheimer critiqued both the
model of science put forward by logical positivism, and what he and his colleagues saw as the covert
positivism and authoritarianism of orthodox Marxism and Communism. He described a theory as critical
insofar as it seeks "to liberate human beings from the circumstances that enslave them".[51] Critical
theory involves a normative dimension, either by criticizing society in terms of some general theory of
values or norms (oughts), or by criticizing society in terms of its own espoused values (i.e. immanent
critique).[52] Significantly, critical theory not only conceptualizes and critiques societal power structures,
but also establishes an empirically grounded model to link society to the human subject.[53] It defends the
universalist ambitions of the tradition, but does so within a specific context of social-scientific and
historical research.[53]

The core concepts of critical theory are that it should:

be directed at the totality of society in its historical specificity (i.e., how it came to be
configured at a specific point in time)
improve understanding of society by integrating all the major social sciences, including
geography, economics, sociology, history, political science, anthropology, and psychology
Postmodern critical theory is another major product of critical theory. It analyzes the fragmentation of
cultural identities in order to challenge modernist-era constructs such as metanarratives, rationality, and
universal truths, while politicizing social problems "by situating them in historical and cultural contexts,
to implicate themselves in the process of collecting and analyzing data, and to relativize their
findings".[54]

Marx
Marx explicitly developed the notion of critique into the critique of ideology, linking it with the practice
of social revolution, as stated in the 11th section of his Theses on Feuerbach: "The philosophers have
only interpreted the world, in various ways; the point is to change it."[55] In early works, including The
German Ideology, Marx developed his concepts of false consciousness and of ideology as the interests of
one section of society masquerading as the interests of society as a whole.

Adorno and Horkheimer

One of the distinguishing characteristics of critical theory, as Theodor W. Adorno and Max Horkheimer
elaborated in their Dialectic of Enlightenment (1947), is an ambivalence about the ultimate source or
foundation of social domination, an ambivalence that gave rise to the "pessimism" of the new critical
theory about the possibility of human emancipation and freedom.[56] This ambivalence was rooted in the
historical circumstances in which the work was originally produced, particularly the rise of Nazism, state
capitalism, and culture industry as entirely new forms of social domination that could not be adequately
explained in the terms of traditional Marxist sociology.[57][58]

For Adorno and Horkheimer, state intervention in the economy had effectively abolished the traditional
tension between Marxism's "relations of production" and "material productive forces" of society. The
market (as an "unconscious" mechanism for the distribution of goods) had been replaced by centralized
planning.[59]

Contrary to Marx's prediction in the Preface to a Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy, this
shift did not lead to "an era of social revolution" but to fascism and totalitarianism. As a result, critical
theory was left, in Habermas's words, without "anything in reserve to which it might appeal, and when
the forces of production enter into a baneful symbiosis with the relations of production that they were
supposed to blow wide open, there is no longer any dynamism upon which critique could base its
hope".[60] For Adorno and Horkheimer, this posed the problem of how to account for the apparent
persistence of domination in the absence of the very contradiction that, according to traditional critical
theory, was the source of domination itself.

Habermas
In the 1960s, Habermas, a proponent of critical social theory,[61] raised the epistemological discussion
to a new level in his Knowledge and Human Interests (1968), by identifying critical knowledge as based
on principles that differentiated it either from the natural sciences or the humanities, through its
orientation to self-reflection and emancipation.[62] Although unsatisfied with Adorno and Horkheimer's
thought in Dialectic of Enlightenment, Habermas shares the view that, in the form of instrumental
rationality, the era of modernity marks a move away from the liberation of enlightenment and toward a
new form of enslavement.[20]: 6 In Habermas's work, critical theory transcended its theoretical roots in
German idealism, and progressed closer to American pragmatism.

Habermas's ideas about the relationship between modernity and rationalization are in this sense strongly
influenced by Max Weber. He further dissolved the elements of critical theory derived from Hegelian
German idealism, though his epistemology remains broadly Marxist. Perhaps his two most influential
ideas are the concepts of the public sphere and communicative action, the latter arriving partly as a
reaction to new post-structural or so-called "postmodern" challenges to the discourse of modernity.
Habermas engaged in regular correspondence with Richard Rorty, and a strong sense of philosophical
pragmatism may be felt in his thought, which frequently traverses the boundaries between sociology and
philosophy.

Modern critical theorists

Contemporary philosophers and researchers who have focused on understanding and critiquing critical
theory include Nancy Fraser, Axel Honneth, Judith Butler, and Rahel Jaeggi. Honneth is known for his
works Pathology of Reason and The Legacy of Critical Theory, in which he attempts to explain critical
theory's purpose in a modern context.[63][64] Jaeggi focuses on both critical theory's original intent and a
more modern understanding that some argue has created a new foundation for modern usage of critical
theory.[63] Butler contextualizes critical theory as a way to rhetorically challenge oppression and
inequality, specifically concepts of gender.[65]

Honneth established a theory that many use to understand critical theory, the theory of recognition.[66] In
this theory, he asserts that in order for someone to be responsible for themselves and their own identity
they must be also recognized by those around them: without recognition in this sense from peers and
society, individuals can never become wholly responsible for themselves and others, nor experience true
freedom and emancipation—i.e., without recognition, the individual cannot achieve self-actualization.

Like many others who put stock in critical theory, Jaeggi is vocal about capitalism's cost to society.
Throughout her writings, she has remained doubtful about the necessity and use of capitalism in regard to
critical theory.[67] Most of Jaeggi's interpretations of critical theory seem to work against the foundations
of Habermas and follow more along the lines of Honneth in terms of how to look at the economy through
the theory's lens.[68] She shares many of Honneth's beliefs, and many of her works try to defend them
against criticism Honneth has received.[69]

To provide a dialectical opposite to Jaeggi's conception of alienation as 'a relation of relationlessness',

Hartmut Rosa has proposed the concept of resonance.[70][71] Rosa uses this term to refer to moments
when late modern subjects experience momentary feelings of self-efficacy in society, bringing them into a
temporary moment of relatedness with some aspect of the world.[71] Rosa describes himself as working
within the critical theory tradition of the Frankfurt School, providing an extensive critique of late
modernity through his concept of social acceleration.[72] However his resonance theory has been
questioned for moving too far beyond the Adornoian tradition of "looking coldly at society".[73]

Schools and Derivates

Postmodern critical social theory

Focusing on language, symbolism, communication, and social construction, critical theory has been
applied in the social sciences as a critique of social construction and postmodern society.[29]

While modernist critical theory (as described above) concerns itself with "forms of authority and injustice
that accompanied the evolution of industrial and corporate capitalism as a political-economic system",
postmodern critical theory politicizes social problems "by situating them in historical and cultural
contexts, to implicate themselves in the process of collecting and analyzing data, and to relativize their
findings".[54] Meaning itself is seen as unstable due to social structures' rapid transformation. As a result,
research focuses on local manifestations rather than broad generalizations.

Postmodern critical research is also characterized by the crisis of representation, which rejects the idea
that a researcher's work is an "objective depiction of a stable other". Instead, many postmodern scholars
have adopted "alternatives that encourage reflection about the 'politics and poetics' of their work. In these
accounts, the embodied, collaborative, dialogic, and improvisational aspects of qualitative research are
clarified."[74]

The term critical theory is often appropriated when an author works in sociological terms, yet attacks the
social or human sciences, thus attempting to remain "outside" those frames of inquiry. Michel Foucault
has been described as one such author.[75] Jean Baudrillard has also been described as a critical theorist to
the extent that he was an unconventional and critical sociologist;[76] this appropriation is similarly casual,
holding little or no relation to the Frankfurt School.[77] In contrast, Habermas is one of the key critics of
postmodernism.[78]

Communication studies
When, in the 1970s and 1980s, Habermas redefined critical social theory as a study of communication,
with communicative competence and communicative rationality on the one hand, and distorted
communication on the other, the two versions of critical theory began to overlap to a much greater degree
than before.

Critical disability theory

At the intersection of disability studies and critical theory is critical disability theory.[79][80][81][82] The
term crip theory originates in Carrie Sandahl's article "Queering the Crip or Crippling the Queer?:
Intersections of Queer and Crip Identities in Solo Autobiographical Performance". It was published in
2003 as part of a journal issue titled "Desiring Disability: Queer Theory Meets Disability Studies".[83]
Christopher Bell's [84] Blackness and Disability;[85] and the work of Robert McRuer both explore
queerness and disability. Work includes the intersections of race and ethnicity with disability in the field
of education studies and has attempted to bridge critical race theory with disability studies.[86]

Critical legal studies

Critical legal studies (CLS) is a school of critical theory that developed in the United States during the
1970s.[87] CLS adherents claim that laws are devised to maintain the status quo of society and thereby
codify its biases against marginalized groups.[88]

Immigration studies
Critical theory can be used to interpret the right of asylum[89] and immigration law.[90]

Critical finance studies

Critical finance studies apply critical theory to financial markets and central banks.[91]

Critical management studies

Critical management studies (CMS) is a loose but extensive grouping of theoretically informed critiques
of management, business and organisation, grounded originally in a critical theory perspective. Today it
encompasses a wide range of perspectives that are critical of traditional theories of management and the
business schools that generate these theories.

Critical international relations theory

Critical international relations theory is a diverse set of schools of thought in international relations (IR)
that have criticized the theoretical, meta-theoretical and/or political status quo, both in IR theory and in
international politics more broadly – from positivist as well as postpositivist positions. Positivist critiques
include Marxist and neo-Marxist approaches and certain ("conventional") strands of social
constructivism. Postpositivist critiques include poststructuralist, postcolonial, "critical" constructivist,
critical theory (in the strict sense used by the Frankfurt School), neo-Gramscian, most feminist, and some
English School approaches, as well as non-Weberian historical sociology,[92] "international political
sociology", "critical geopolitics", and the so-called "new materialism"[93] (partly inspired by actor–
network theory). All of these latter approaches differ from both realism and liberalism in their
epistemological and ontological premises.

Critical race theory

Critical race theory (CRT) is an academic field focused on the relationships between social conceptions
of race and ethnicity, social and political laws, and mass media. CRT also considers racism to be systemic
in various laws and rules, not based only on individuals' prejudices.[94][95] The word critical in the name
is an academic reference to critical theory rather than criticizing or blaming individuals.[96][97]

Critical pedagogy
Critical theorists have widely credited Paulo Freire for the first applications of critical theory to
education/pedagogy, considering his best-known work to be Pedagogy of the Oppressed, a seminal text in
what is now known as the philosophy and social movement of critical pedagogy.[98][99] Dedicated to the
oppressed and based on his own experience helping Brazilian adults learn to read and write, Freire
includes a detailed class analysis in his exploration of the relationship between the colonizer and the
colonized. In the book, he calls traditional pedagogy the "banking model of education", because it treats
the student as an empty vessel to be filled with knowledge. He argues that pedagogy should instead treat
the learner as a co-creator of knowledge.

In contrast to the banking model, the teacher in the critical-theory model is not the dispenser of all
knowledge, but a participant who learns with and from the students—in conversation with them, even as
they learn from the teacher. The goal is to liberate the learner from an oppressive construct of teacher
versus student, a dichotomy analogous to colonizer and colonized. It is not enough for the student to
analyze societal power structures and hierarchies, to merely recognize imbalance and inequity; critical
theory pedagogy must also empower the learner to reflect and act on that reflection to challenge an
oppressive status quo.[98][100]

Critical consciousness
Critical consciousness, conscientization, or conscientização in Portuguese (Portuguese pronunciation:
[kõsjẽtʃizaˈsɐ̃w]), is a popular education and social concept developed by Brazilian pedagogue and
educational theorist Paulo Freire, grounded in neo-Marxist critical theory. Critical consciousness focuses
on achieving an in-depth understanding of the world, allowing for the perception and exposure of social
and political contradictions. Critical consciousness also includes taking action against the oppressive
elements in one's life that are illuminated by that understanding.[101]

Critical university studies

Critical university studies is a field examining the role of higher education in contemporary society and
its relation to culture, politics, and labor. Arising primarily from cultural studies, it applies critical theory
toward the university since the 1970s, particularly the shift away from a strong public model of higher
education to a neoliberal privatized model. Emerging largely in the United States, which has the most
extensive system of higher education, the field has also seen significant work in the United Kingdom, as
well as in other countries confronting neoliberalism. Key themes of CUS research are corporatization,
academic labor, and student debt, among other issues.

Critical psychology
Critical psychology is a perspective on psychology that draws extensively on critical theory. Critical
psychology challenges the assumptions, theories and methods of mainstream psychology and attempts to
apply psychological understandings in different ways.

Critical criminology
Critical criminology applies critical theory to criminology. Critical criminology examines the genesis of
crime and the nature of justice in relation to power, privilege, and social status. These include factors such
as class, race, gender, and sexuality. Legal and penal systems are understood to reproduce and uphold
systems of social inequality.[102][103] Additionally, critical criminology works to uncover possible biases
within traditional criminological research.[104]

Critical animal studies

Critical animal studies (CAS) applies critical theory[105] to animal studies and animal ethics. It emerged
in 2001 with the founding of the Centre for Animal Liberation Affairs by Anthony J. Nocella II and
Steven Best, which in 2007 became the Institute for Critical Animal Studies (ICAS).[106][107] The core
interest of CAS is animal ethics, firmly grounded in trans-species intersectionality, environmental justice,
social justice politics and critical analysis of the underlying role played by the capitalist system.[108]
Scholars in the field seek to integrate academic research with political engagement and activism.

Critical social work

Critical social work is the application to social work of a critical theory perspective. Critical social work
seeks to address social injustices, as opposed to focusing on individualized issues. Critical theories
explain social problems as arising from various forms of oppression and injustice in globalized capitalist
societies and forms of neoliberal governance.

This approach to social work theory is formed by a polyglot of theories from across the humanities and
social sciences, borrowing from various schools of thought, including anarchism, anti-capitalism, anti-
racism, Marxism, feminism, biopolitics, and social democracy.[109]

Critical ethnography
Critical ethnography applies a critical theory based approach to ethnography. It focuses on the implicit
values expressed within ethnographic studies and, therefore, on the unacknowledged biases that may
result from such implicit values.[110] It has been called critical theory in practice.[111] In the spirit of
critical theory, this approach seeks to determine symbolic mechanisms, to extract ideology from action,
and to understand the cognition and behaviour of research subjects within historical, cultural, and social
frameworks.

Critical data studies

Critical data studies is the exploration of and engagement with social, cultural, and ethical challenges that
arise when working with big data. It is through various unique perspectives and taking a critical approach
that this form of study can be practiced.[112] As its name implies, critical data studies draws heavily on
the influence of critical theory, which has a strong focus on addressing the organization of power
structures. This idea is then applied to the study of data.

Critical environmental justice

Critical environmental justice applies critical theory to environmental justice.[113]

Criticism
While critical theorists have often been called Marxist intellectuals, their tendency to denounce some
Marxist concepts and to combine Marxian analysis with other sociological and philosophical traditions
has resulted in accusations of revisionism by Orthodox Marxist and by Marxist–Leninist philosophers.
Martin Jay has said that the first generation of critical theory is best understood not as promoting a
specific philosophical agenda or ideology, but as "a gadfly of other systems".[114]

Critical theory has been criticized for not offering any clear road map to political action (praxis), often
explicitly repudiating any solutions.[115] Those objections mostly apply to first-generation Frankfurt
School, while the issue of politics is addressed in a much more assertive way in contemporary theory.[116]
Another criticism of critical theory "is that it fails to provide rational standards by which it can show that
it is superior to other theories of knowledge, science, or practice." Rex Gibson argues that critical theory
suffers from being cliquish, conformist, elitist, immodest, anti-individualist, naive, too critical, and
contradictory. Hughes and Hughes argue that Habermas' theory of ideal public discourse "says much
about rational talkers talking, but very little about actors acting: Felt, perceptive, imaginative, bodily
experience does not fit these theories".[117][118]

Some feminists argue that critical theory "can be as narrow and oppressive as the rationalization,
bureaucratization, and cultures they seek to unmask and change.[117][118]

Critical theory's language has been criticized as being too dense to understand, although "Counter
arguments to these issues of language include claims that a call for clearer and more accessible language
is anti-intellectual, a new 'language of possibility' is needed, and oppressed peoples can understand and
contribute to new languages."[118]

Bruce Pardy, writing for the National Post, argued that any challenges to the "legitimacy [of critical
theory] can be interpreted as a demonstration of their [critical theory's proponents'] thesis: the assertion of
reason, logic and evidence is a manifestation of privilege and power. Thus, any challenger risks the
stigma of a bigoted oppressor."[119]

Robert Danisch, writing for The Conversation, argued that critical theory, and the modern humanities
more broadly, focus too much on criticizing the current world rather than trying to make a better
world.[120]

See also
Modernism
Antipositivism
Critical military studies
Cultural studies
Information criticism
Marxist cultural analysis
Outline of critical theory
Popular culture studies
Outline of organizational theory
Postcritique
Quare theory

Lists
List of critical theorists
List of works in critical theory

Journals
Constellations
 Representations
Critical Inquiry
Telos
Law and Critique

References

Footnotes
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Willard, Charles Arthur. 1982. Argumentation and the Social Grounds of Knowledge (https://
philpapers.org/rec/WILAAT-22). University of Alabama Press.
— 1989. A Theory of Argumentation. University of Alabama Press.
— 1996. Liberalism and the Problem of Knowledge: A New Rhetoric for Modern Democracy
(https://books.google.com/books?id=OU75AafuhvcC). Chicago: University of Chicago
Press.
Chapter 9. Critical Theory Solomon, Robert C., ed. (2007). The Blackwell Guide to
Continental Philosophy (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/437147422). David L. Sherman.
Oxford: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1405143042. OCLC 437147422 (https://search.world
cat.org/oclc/437147422).

External links
"The Frankfurt School and Critical Theory" (http://www.iep.utm.edu/frankfur). Internet
Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
Gerhardt, Christina. "Frankfurt School". The International Encyclopedia of Revolution and
Protest. Ness, Immanuel (ed). Blackwell Publishing, 2009. Blackwell Reference Online (htt
p://www.blackwellreference.com/subscriber/tocnode.html?id=g9781405184649_chunk_g978
1405184649586).
"Theory: Death Is Not the End" (https://nplusonemag.com/issue-2/the-intellectual-situation/d
eath-is-not-the-end/) N+1 magazine's short history of academic Critical Theory.
Critical Legal Thinking (http://www.criticallegalthinking.com/) A Critical Legal Studies website
which uses Critical Theory in an analysis of law and politics.
L. Corchia, Jürgen Habermas. A Bibliography: works and studies (1952–2013) (https://book
s.google.com/books?id=-T14AQAAQBAJ), Pisa, Edizioni Il Campano – Arnus University
Books, 2013, 606 pages.
Sim, S.; Van Loon, B. (2009). Introducing Critical Theory: A Graphic Guide. Icon Books Ltd.

Archival collections
Guide to the Critical Theory Offprint Collection. (http://www.oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/t
f5q2nb391) Special Collections and Archives, The UC Irvine Libraries, Irvine, Cali Guide to
the Critical Theory Institute Audio and Video Recordings, University of California, Irvine. (htt
p://www.oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/kt5k403303) Special Collections and Archives, The
UC Irvine Libraries, Irvine, California.
 University of California, Irvine, Critical Theory Institute Manuscript Materials. (http://www.oa
c.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/kt9x0nf6pd) Special Collections and Archives, The UC Irvine
Libraries, Irvine, California.

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