Assignment of Mobile Computing

1 Discuss the six important issues related to mobile computing.

• Mobility
– Configuration
– Location management
– Heterogeneity
– Security and authentication
– Hidden & Exposed terminal
• Wireless Medium
– Weak and Intermittent Connectivity
– Variant Connectivity
– Broadcast Facility
• Portability of Mobile Elements

• Mobility: The location of mobile elements and therefore their point of

attachment to the fixed network change as they move
• Mobility of nodes
– Loss of connectivity
– Network partitioning;
– Bit errors.

• Configuration: The configuration of a system that includes mobile

elements is not static.
– In designing distributed algorithms, we can no more rely on a
fixed topology.
– The center of activity, the system load, and locality change
dynamically.

Location management : The search cost to locate mobile elements is added

to the cost of each communication involving them.

• Efficient data structures, algorithms, and query execution plans must be

devised for representing, managing, and querying the location of mobile
elements, which is a fast changing data
• Heterogeneity: Connectivity becomes highly variant in performance and
reliability.
• The number of devices in a network cell changes with time, and so do
both the load at the base station and bandwidth availability.
• There may be also variability in the provision of specific services, such as
in the type of available printers or weather reports.
• The resources available to a mobile element vary

• Security & Authentication: Security is a major concern in context to

mobility.
• Authenticating the identity of a user, process, or device, often as a
prerequisite to allowing access to resources in an information system.

• Hidden & Exposed Terminal: Hidden terminal problem: Two nodes that
are outside each-other's range perform simultaneous transmission to a
node that is within the range of each of them, which may result into
packet collision.
• Exposed terminal problem: The node is within the range of a node that is
transmitting, and it cannot transmit to any node.

• Wireless Medium: Wireless networks are more expensive, offer less

bandwidth, and are less reliable than wire-line networks.
• Wireless communications face many obstacles because the surrounding
environment interacts with the signal
• Bandwidth is a scarce resource
• Data transmission over the air is currently monetarily expensive

Variant Connectivity: Wireless technologies vary on the degree of

bandwidth and reliability they provide

• Broadcast Facility: There is a high bandwidth broadcast channel from

the base station to all mobile clients in its cell.
• Portability of Mobile Elements: Mobile elements are resource poor
when compared to static elements
• Mobile elements rely on battery.
• Mobile elements are easier to be accidentally damaged, stolen, or lost.

2 How frequency reuse in achieved in cellular system? Discuss the basic

structure which is used to represent the cell in cellular system.
 3 What is the need of channel allocation? Explain the different types of
channel allocation schemes?

Channel allocation is essential in communication systems to ensure efficient us

e of the available frequency spectrum and minimize interference between diffe
rent users. It's crucial for maintaining high-quality communication and maximiz
ing the capacity of the network. Here are the different types of channel allocati
on schemes:

1. Fixed Channel Allocation (FCA):

 Description: Each cell in the network is allocated a fixed number o

f channels. These channels are exclusively used by the cell and are
not shared with other cells.

 Pros: Simple to implement and manage; predictable performance.

 Cons: Inefficient use of spectrum during low traffic periods; fixed r

esources can lead to congestion during high traffic periods.

2. Dynamic Channel Allocation (DCA):

 Description: Channels are allocated dynamically based on current

demand and usage. When a user requires a channel, it is assigned
from a pool of available channels.

 Pros: More efficient use of spectrum; can adapt to changing traffic

patterns.

 Cons: More complex to implement and manage; can cause delays i

n channel assignment.

3. Hybrid Channel Allocation (HCA):

 Description: Combines aspects of both FCA and DCA. Some chann

els are fixed, while others are dynamically assigned.

 Pros: Balances predictability with flexibility; can provide improved

performance over purely fixed or dynamic schemes.

 Cons: Complexity in management and configuration.

 4. Borrowing Channel Allocation (BCA):

 Description: Channels are initially assigned fixedly, but if a cell exh

austs its allocation, it can borrow channels from neighboring cells
that have idle channels.

 Pros: Reduces the likelihood of congestion; better utilization of av

ailable spectrum.

 Cons: Potential interference and coordination issues; complexity i

n borrowing mechanism.

4 Illustrate the important steps one need to follow while initiating

voice calls in GSM network.

Call Setup: When a user initiates a call, the mobile device sends a call setup
request to the network. The network identifies the destination and initiates the
call setup process.

Base Station Control: The network instructs the base station in the cell of the
calling party to establish a connection. The base station communicates with
the mobile device to set up the call.

Handover: If the mobile device moves from one cell to another during an
ongoing call, a handover may occur. The call is transferred seamlessly to the
new cell's base station to maintain connectivity.

Call Release: When the call is completed, either party or the network initiates
the call release process. Resources are freed up for other calls.

5 What is HiperLan? Discuss the different phases of HiperLan.

. Purpose: HIPERLAN was designed to provide wireless connectivity for LANs,
enabling users to access network resources without the need for physical
cables. It aims to offer high throughput and low latency to support various
applications, including voice, video, and data transmission.

2. Versions: There are two main versions of HIPERLAN:

– HIPERLAN/1: The first version of HIPERLAN was designed for

indoor use, operating in the 5 GHz frequency band. It supports
data rates of up to 20 Mbps.

– HIPERLAN/2: HIPERLAN/2, also known as HiperLAN Type 2, is an

extension of the original standard and is intended for both indoor
and outdoor use. It operates in the 5 GHz frequency band and
offers higher data rates, up to 54 Mbps. HIPERLAN/2 also provides
support for Quality of Service (QoS) mechanisms, security
features, and mobility.

6 Any organization wants to provide the Wi-Fi facility to its entire building.
Briefly explain the architecture which can be used in such a scenario with
appropriate figure. Also, which type of antenna should be provided to the
access point in such a scenario.

7 A company wants to develop mobile app for commercial usage. If you

are leading a team who is responsible to develop mobile app, what are the key
features that you will consider for developing such a mobile app.

Developing a mobile app for commercial use requires careful planning and con
sideration of several key features to ensure it meets user needs and stands out
in the market. Here are some essential features to consider:
Key Features for a Commercial Mobile App

1. User-Friendly Interface:

 Intuitive Design: Ensure the app has a clean, intuitive, and easy-
to-navigate interface.

 Responsive Design: Make sure it works seamlessly on various devi

ces and screen sizes.

2. Performance Optimization:

 Fast Loading: Optimize the app for quick loading times.

 Efficient Data Use: Minimize data usage to enhance user experien

ce, especially for those on limited data plans.

3. Security and Privacy:

 Data Encryption: Implement strong encryption for data storage an

d transmission.

 User Authentication: Include features like multi-factor authentica

tion and biometric login (fingerprint, facial recognition) for enhanc
ed security.

 Privacy Policies: Clearly communicate how user data is handled an

d ensure compliance with relevant data protection regulations (e.
g., GDPR).

4. Offline Functionality:

 Local Data Storage: Allow users to access certain features and con
tent even without an internet connection.

 Sync Capabilities: Ensure data syncs seamlessly once the user reco
nnects to the internet.

5. Push Notifications:

 Timely Updates: Use push notifications to keep users informed ab

out important updates, offers, and reminders.
  Customizable Alerts: Allow users to customize their notification pr
eferences to avoid overloading them.

6. In-App Purchases and Subscriptions:

 Seamless Transactions: Integrate secure and easy-to-use payment

gateways.

 Subscription Management: Provide options for users to manage t

heir subscriptions within the app.

7. Integration with Third-Party Services:

 Social Media Integration: Allow users to share content or log in us

ing their social media accounts.

 API Integration: Ensure the app can connect with other services a
nd platforms as needed.

8. Analytics and Reporting:

 User Behavior Tracking: Implement analytics to track user behavio

r and app performance.

 Reporting Tools: Provide administrators with reporting tools to m

ake data-driven decisions.

9. Scalability:

 Modular Architecture: Design the app to be easily scalable to acco

mmodate future growth and additional features.

10.Customer Support:

 Help Desk Integration: Include features like live chat, FAQs, and su
pport tickets to assist users with their queries.

 Feedback Mechanism: Allow users to provide feedback and rate t

he app, helping to identify areas for improvement.
8 Differentiate Piconet and Scatternet by using suitable representation.

Piconet:

1. Definition: A Piconet is a basic unit of Bluetooth network formed by one

master device and one or more slave devices (up to 7 active slaves).

2. Structure:

 Master: Controls the communication.

 Slaves: Respond to the master’s commands.

3. Communication: Direct communication between the master and each sl

ave.

4. Example: A smartphone (master) connected to a Bluetooth headset, a s

martwatch, and a laptop (slaves).

Scatternet:

1. Definition: A Scatternet is formed by multiple Piconets interconnected t

hrough common devices acting as bridges between them.

2. Structure:

 Multiple Piconets: Each with its own master and slaves.

 Bridge Devices: Devices that participate in multiple Piconets, actin

g as masters in one and slaves in another.

3. Communication: Allows communication between different Piconets, ext

ending the network coverage.

4. Example: Multiple Bluetooth devices such as a laptop, a smartphone, an

d a printer where the laptop is part of two Piconets, bridging the commu
nication.
9 Twelve sources, eight with a bit rate of 150 kbps and four with a bit rate
of 300 kbps, are to be combined using multilevel TDM with no synchronizing
bit. Answer the following questions related to multiplexing.

a. What is the size of a frame in bits?

b. What is the frame rate?

c. What is the duration of a frame?

d. What is the data rate?

10 Elaborate in detail the scenario where the concept of channel borrowing

and handoff is required.

Channel Borrowing

Channel Borrowing is a technique used in cellular networks to enhance the util

ization of available frequency channels, particularly in scenarios where traffic d
emand is unevenly distributed across cells. Here's a detailed scenario where ch
annel borrowing is beneficial:

Scenario: Imagine a busy urban area with several overlapping cell towers. Duri
ng office hours, a particular cell (Cell A) near a business district experiences a hi
gh volume of calls, while adjacent cells (Cell B and Cell C) have moderate traffic
. To avoid call drops and congestion in Cell A, the network can use channel borr
owing.

Handoff (or handover) is the process of transferring an ongoing call or data ses
sion from one cell to another as a user moves through the coverage area. Ther
e are different types of handoffs, such as hard and soft handoffs. Here’s a detail
ed scenario illustrating the need for handoff:

Scenario: A user is on a call while driving through a city. They start in the cover
age area of Cell A but are moving towards Cell B. To maintain call continuity an
d quality, a handoff is required.
11 What do you mean by multiplexing? Explain Frequency-Division
multiplexing and de-multiplexing in detail.

Multiplexing is the set of techniques that allows the (simultaneous)

transmission of multiple signals across a single data link. As data and
telecommunications use increases, so does traffic

Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM)

Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM) is a type of multiplexing where the ava

ilable frequency spectrum is divided into multiple frequency bands. Each signal
or data stream is assigned a unique frequency band within the spectrum. This a
llows multiple signals to be transmitted simultaneously without interfering wit
h each other.

How FDM Works:

1. Signal Generation: Multiple input signals are generated, each intended t

o be transmitted over the same medium.

2. Modulation: Each signal is modulated onto a different carrier frequency.

This modulation ensures that each signal occupies a unique frequency ba
nd.

3. Combination: The modulated signals are combined into a single composi

te signal, which is transmitted over the shared medium.

4. Transmission: The combined signal is sent over the communication chan

nel (e.g., a coaxial cable, optical fiber, or wireless medium).

Example:

Imagine three different radio stations broadcasting over the same area. Each st
ation transmits at a different frequency within the FM band, allowing multiple
stations to be broadcast simultaneously without interference.
Frequency-Division Demultiplexing

Frequency-Division Demultiplexing is the reverse process of FDM. It involves s

eparating the combined signal back into its original individual signals.

How FDD Works:

1. Reception: The composite signal is received at the destination.

2. Filtering: The received signal is passed through a series of band-pass filte

rs, each tuned to a specific frequency band corresponding to one of the
original signals.

3. Demodulation: Each filtered signal is demodulated to retrieve the origin

al baseband signal.

4. Output: The individual signals are then outputted separately, ready for p
rocessing or use.

12 What do you mean by multiplexing? Explain Wavelength- Division

multiplexing and de-multiplexing in detail.

You said

What do you mean by multiplexing? Explain Wavelength- Division multiplexing

and de-multiplexing in detail.

Copilot said

Multiplexing

Multiplexing is a technique used to combine multiple signals into one transmis

sion medium, maximizing the utilization of the available bandwidth. This appro
ach is essential in communication systems to efficiently use resources and tran
smit more data simultaneously.

Wavelength-Division Multiplexing (WDM)

Wavelength-Division Multiplexing (WDM) is a type of multiplexing used in fibe

r-optic communication. It involves combining multiple light signals of different
wavelengths (colors) into a single optical fiber. Each wavelength carries its own
data stream, enabling the simultaneous transmission of multiple signals.

How WDM Works:

1. Signal Generation: Multiple data streams are converted into optical sign
als using lasers, each operating at a different wavelength.

2. Multiplexer: The different wavelength signals are combined using a devi

ce called a multiplexer. This device merges the optical signals into a singl
e composite signal.

3. Transmission: The combined optical signal is transmitted through a singl

e optical fiber.

4. Demultiplexer: At the receiving end, a demultiplexer separates the com

posite signal back into its individual wavelength signals.

5. Signal Detection: Each separated signal is then converted back into its or
iginal electrical form for further processing or usage.

Example:

Imagine a fiber-optic network connecting different data centers. By using WDM

, each data center can send data on different wavelengths, allowing the networ
k to carry multiple data streams simultaneously without interference.

Wavelength-Division Demultiplexing

Wavelength-Division Demultiplexing is the reverse process of WDM. It involve

s separating the combined optical signal back into individual wavelengths at th
e receiver end.

How WDM Demultiplexing Works:

1. Reception: The composite optical signal is received at the destination.

2. Demultiplexer: The signal is passed through a demultiplexer, which uses

optical filters to separate the different wavelengths.
 3. Signal Detection: Each separated wavelength is then directed to a specifi
c photodetector, which converts the optical signal back into an electrical
signal.

4. Output: The individual signals are outputted separately for processing or

use.

13 In Mobile Ad-hoc Network (MANET) nodes do not know the topology of

their network as the topology is dynamic. Discuss the different routing
protocols used in such a dynamic scenario.

• In MANET, nodes do not know the topology of their network, instead

they have to discover it by their own as the topology in the ad-hoc
network is dynamic.

• The basic rules is that a new node whenever enters into an ad-hoc
network, must announce its arrival and presence and should also listen
to similar announcement broadcasts made by other mobile nodes.

Pro-active Protocols

These are also known as table-driven routing protocols.

Each mobile node maintains a separate routing table which contains the
information of the routes to all the possible destination mobile nodes.

Since the topology in the mobile ad-hoc network is dynamic, these routing
tables are updated periodically as and when the network topology changes.

It has a limitation that it doesn’t work well for the large networks as the entries
in the routing table becomes too large since they need to maintain the route
information to all possible nodes.

Reactive Protocols

• These are also known as on-demand routing protocol.

• In this type of routing, the route is discovered only when it is

required/needed.
 • The process of route discovery occurs by flooding the route request
packets throughout the mobile network.

• It consists of two major phases namely, route discovery and route

maintenance.

Hybrid Protocols

• It basically combines the advantages of both, reactive and pro-active

routing protocols.

• These protocols are adaptive in nature and adapts according to the zone
and position of the source and destination mobile nodes.

• One of the most popular hybrid routing protocol is Zone Routing

Protocol (ZRP).

Pro-active Protocols

Destination Sequenced Distance Vector Routing Protocol (DSDV):

• It is a pro-active/table driven routing protocol based on the Bellman-ford

routing algorithm.

• Destination sequence number is added with every routing entry in the

routing table maintained by each node.

• A node will include the new update in the table only if the entry consists
of the new updated route to the destination with higher sequence
number.

Global State Routing (GSR):

• It is a pro-active/table driven routing protocol which is based on

Dijkstra’s routing algorithm.

• Global state routing doesn’t flood packets into the network.

In GSR, each of the mobile node maintains one list and three tables namely,
adjacency list, topology table, next hop table and distance table for routing

Re-active Protocols
 • Dynamic Source Routing protocol (DSR): It is a reactive/on-demand
routing protocol.

• In this type of routing, the route is discovered only when it is

required/needed.

• The process of route discovery occurs by flooding the route request

packets throughout the mobile network.

• It consists of two phases:

– Route Discovery: This phase determines the most optimal path

for the transmission of data packets between the source and the
destination mobile nodes.

– Route Maintenance: This phase performs the maintenance work

of the route as the topology in the mobile ad-hoc network is
dynamic in nature and hence, there are many cases of link
breakage resulting in the network failure between the mobile
nodes.

Ad-Hoc On Demand Vector Routing protocol (AODV)

• It is a reactive/on-demand routing protocol which is a extension of DSR.

• In DSR, after route discovery, when the source mobile node sends the
data packet to the destination mobile node, it also contains the
complete path in its header.

• Hence, as the network size increases, the length of the complete path
also increases and the data packet’s header size also increases which
makes the whole network slow.

• Hence, Ad-Hoc On Demand Vector Routing protocol came as solution to

it.

Ad-Hoc On Demand Vector Routing protocol (AODV)

• The main difference lies in the way of storing the path, AODV stores the
path in the routing table whereas DSR stores it in the data packet’s
header itself.
 • It also operates in two phases in the similar fashion: Route discovery and
Route maintenance.

Hybrid Protocol

• The whole network is divided into different zones and then the position
of source and destination mobile node is observed.

• If the source and destination mobile nodes are present in the same zone,
then proactive routing is used for the transmission of the data packets
between them.

• And if the source and destination mobile nodes are present in different
zones, then reactive routing is used for the transmission of the data
packets between them.

14 What is the difference between the Ad-hoc mode and Infrastructure

mode of the wireless topology? Describe by giving its appropriate illustration.

There are two types of wireless topologies:

Standalone Architecture (Ad-Hoc mode)

 Devices connected over the wireless network communicate with each

other directly as in the peer-to-peer communication mode.

 The Ad-Hoc mode does not use wireless components such as routers
and switches for communication between devices.

 This mode works effectively for a small group of devices and it is

necessary to connect all the devices with each other in close proximity.

 Performance degrades as the number of devices increases.

Centrally Coordinated Architecture (Infrastructure mode)

  A Centrally Coordinated Architecture (Infrastructure mode) is an
architecture where all the wireless devices connect to each other
through an access point.

 This access point (router or switch) receives Internet by connecting to a

broadband modem.

 This mode will work effectively when deployed in large organizations.

 This mode provides enhanced security options, scalability, stability and

easy management.

 The downside is that it is expensive, since an access point is required to

connect the devices to each other.

15 A satellite is launched to different orbits around the earth to fulfill

different society needs. Identify the different orbits on which satellite can be
launched with proper explanation. How earth station communicates to
satellite for transmitting signals. Explain with figure.

Satellites can be launched into various orbits around the Earth depending on th
eir mission and the needs they serve. Here are the different types of orbits and
their purposes:

Types of Orbits

1. Low Earth Orbit (LEO):

 Altitude: Approximately 200 to 2,000 kilometers above Earth.

 Purpose: Used for Earth observation, scientific research, weather

monitoring, and some communication satellites.

 Advantages: Shorter latency for communications, high-resolution i

magery.
  Examples: International Space Station (ISS), Earth observation sate
llites like Landsat.

2. Medium Earth Orbit (MEO):

 Altitude: Approximately 2,000 to 35,786 kilometers above Earth.

 Purpose: Used for navigation satellites (like GPS), communication,

and scientific research.

 Advantages: Longer orbital period than LEO, covering larger areas.

 Examples: GPS satellites, Galileo satellites.

3. Geostationary Orbit (GEO):

 Altitude: Approximately 35,786 kilometers above Earth.

 Purpose: Used for weather satellites, communications, and broadc

asting.

 Advantages: Satellites appear stationary relative to a point on Eart

h, providing consistent coverage.

 Examples: Weather satellites like GOES, communication satellites

for television broadcasting.

4. High Earth Orbit (HEO):

 Altitude: Above 35,786 kilometers, includes orbits like Molniya or

bits.

 Purpose: Used for specialized communication, scientific missions,

and some reconnaissance.

 Advantages: Covers high latitudes well, useful for specific commu

nication needs.

 Examples: Molniya orbit satellites used by Russia for communicati

on.

Communication Between Earth Station and Satellite

An Earth station communicates with satellites using radio waves. The process i
nvolves several steps and components:

1. Uplink: Transmitting signals from the Earth station to the satellite.

2. Downlink: Receiving signals from the satellite at the Earth station.

3. Transponder: The satellite's transponder receives the uplink signal, ampl

ifies it, changes the frequency, and transmits it back to Earth.

Diagram Representation:

Here's a simplified figure to illustrate the communication process:

Copy

[Earth Station]

| (Uplink)

[ Satellite ]

| (Downlink)

[Earth Station]

In the above figure:

 Uplink: Signals sent from the Earth station to the satellite.

 Satellite: Processes and retransmits the signals.

 Downlink: Signals sent from the satellite back to the Earth station.

This process allows for seamless communication between the Earth and the sat
ellite, enabling various applications like broadcasting, navigation, and data tran
smission.
16 Explain the architecture of GSM by explaining its important components
and different subsystem.

GSM Architecture: GSM stands for Global System for Mobile Communication.
GSM is an open and digital cellular technology used for mobile communication.
It uses 4 different frequency bands of 850 MHz, 900 MHz, 1800 MHz and 1900
MHz . It uses the combination of FDMA and TDMA.

GSM is having 4 different sizes of cells are used in GSM :

1. Macro : In this size of cell, Base Station antenna is installed.

2. Micro : In this size of cell, antenna height is less than the average roof level.
3. Pico : Small cells’ diameter of few meters.

4. Umbrella : It covers the shadowed (Fill the gaps between cells) regions.

GSM is nothing but a larger system which is divided into further 3 subsystems.
BSS : BSS stands for Base Station Subsystem. BSS handles traffic and signaling
between a mobile phone and the network switching subsystem. BSS having
two components BTS and BSC.

NSS : NSS stands for Network and Switching Subsystem. NSS is the core
network of GSM. That carried out call and mobility management functions for
mobile phone present in network. NSS have different components like VLR,
HLR and EIR. OSS : OSS stands for Operating Subsystem. OSS is a functional
entity which the network operator monitor and control the system. OMC is the
part of OSS. Purpose of OSS is to offer the customer cost-effective support for
all GSM related maintenance services. Suppose there are 3 Mobile stations
which are connected with the tower and that tower is connected to BTS
through TRX, then further connected to BSC and MSC.

MS : MS stands for Mobile System. MS comprises user equipment and

software needed for communication with a mobile network. Mobile Station
(MS) = Mobile Equipment (ME) + Subscriber Identity Module (SIM). Now, these
mobile stations are connected to tower and that tower connected with BTS
through TRX. TRX is a transceiver which comprises transmitter and receiver.
Transceiver has two performance of sending and receiving.

BTS : BTS stands for Base Transceiver Station which facilitates wireless
communication between user equipment and a network. Every tower has BTS.
Transceiver = Transmitter + Receiver

BSC : BSC stands for Base Station Controller. BSC has multiple BTS. You can
consider the BSC as a local exchange of your area which has multiple towers
and multiple towers have BTS.

MSC : MSC stands for Mobile Switching Center. MSC is associated with
communication switching functions such as call setup, call release and routing.
Call tracing, call forwarding all functions are performed at the MSC level. MSC
is having further components like VLR, HLR, AUC, EIR and PSTN.

VLR : VLR stands for Visitor Location Register. VLR is a database which contains
the exact location of all mobile subscribers currently present in the service
area of MSC. If you are going from one state to another state then your entry is
marked into the database of VLR.

HLR : HLR stands for Home Location Register. HLR is a database containing
pertinent data regarding subscribers authorized to use a GSM network.. If you
purchase SIM card from in the HLR. HLR is like a home which contains all data
like your ID proof, which plan you are taking, which caller tune you are using
etc. AUC : AUC stands for Authentication Center. AUC authenticates the mobile
subscriber that wants to connect in the network.

EIR : EIR stands for Equipment Identity Register. EIR is a database that keeps
the record of all allowed or banned in the network. If you are banned in the
network then you can’t enter the network, and you can’t make the calls.

PSTN : PSTN stands for Public Switched Telephone Network. PSTN connects
with MSC. PSTN originally a network of fixed line analog telephone systems.
Now almost entirely digital in its core network and includes mobile and other
networks as well as fixed telephones. The earlier landline phones which places
at our home is nothing but PSTN.
OMC : OMC stands for Operation Maintenance Center. OMC monitor and
maintain the performance of each MS, BSC and MSC within a GSM system.

Three subsystem BSS, NSS and OSS are connected with each other via some
interfaces. Total three interfaces are there:

Air Interface : Air interface is also known as UM interface. Interface between

MS and BTS is called as UM interface because it is mobile analog to the U
interface of ISDN.

Abis Interface : It is a BSS internal interface linking with BTS and BSC.

A interface : It provides communication between BSS and MSC

17 If the allocated number of channels to a cell is exhausted in a cellular

network, identify the strategies which can be used to provide more channels to
the exhausted cell.

When a cell in a cellular network exhausts its allocated number of channels, se

veral strategies can be employed to provide additional channels and ensure co
ntinued service. Here are some of the primary strategies:

Strategies to Provide More Channels

1. Channel Borrowing:

 Description: Channels are temporarily borrowed from neighboring

cells that have idle channels.

 Process: The Base Station Controller (BSC) manages the borrowing

process, ensuring that the borrowed channels do not cause interfe
rence in the donor cell.

 Benefit: Reduces the likelihood of congestion and call drops.

2. Cell Splitting:
  Description: The overloaded cell is divided into smaller cells, each
with its own set of channels.

 Process: New base stations are added to cover the newly created
smaller cells.

 Benefit: Increases capacity by reducing the coverage area of each

cell, allowing more frequency reuse.

3. Cell Sectoring:

 Description: The cell is divided into sectors, each served by a direc

tional antenna.

 Process: Typically, a cell is split into three or six sectors, with each
sector having its own set of channels.

 Benefit: Reduces interference and increases the number of availa

ble channels within the same cell area.

4. Dynamic Channel Allocation (DCA):

 Description: Channels are allocated dynamically based on real-

time demand.

 Process: The network continuously monitors channel usage and re

allocates channels as needed.

 Benefit: Efficient use of available spectrum and adaptation to chan

ging traffic patterns.

5. Microcells and Picocells:

 Description: Deploying smaller cells (microcells or picocells) within

the coverage area of the overloaded cell.

 Process: These small cells serve high-traffic areas and offload traffi
c from the macrocell.

 Benefit: Enhances capacity and coverage in high-density areas.

6. Frequency Reuse:
  Description: Reusing the same frequency channels at different cell
s separated by a sufficient distance to avoid interference.

 Process: Carefully planning the frequency reuse pattern to maximi

ze spectrum efficiency.

 Benefit: Increases the number of channels available in the networ

k.

7. Carrier Aggregation:

 Description: Combining multiple frequency bands to increase ban

dwidth and capacity.

 Process: Aggregating carriers from different frequency bands to pr

ovide additional channels.

 Benefit: Improves data rates and overall network capacity.

8. Spectrum Refarming:

 Description: Reallocating existing spectrum from older technologi

es (e.g., 2G) to newer technologies (e.g., 4G/LTE).

 Process: Phasing out or reducing the allocation for older services t

o free up spectrum for high-demand services.

 Benefit: Better utilization of available spectrum for current needs

18 Discuss the block diagram and the working of DSSS and FHSS in detail.

Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) is a modulation technique used in

wireless communication systems to spread the signal over a wider bandwidth
than the minimum required for transmission. DSSS achieves this by multiplying
the data signal with a higher rate spreading sequence, which spreads the signal
energy over a wider frequency band.

Here's how DSSS works:

• Spreading Sequence: In DSSS, each bit of the original data signal is

represented by multiple chips (binary digits) of a spreading sequence.
 This spreading sequence is typically a pseudorandom noise (PN)
sequence, also known as a spreading code or a spreading waveform. The
spreading sequence has a higher data rate than the original data signal.

• Chipping: Each bit of the original data signal is multiplied (or modulated)
by the corresponding chip of the spreading sequence. This process is
called chipping. The resulting spread signal has a much higher data rate
than the original data signal, spreading the signal energy over a wider
bandwidth.

• Bandwidth Expansion: The spreading process causes the signal to

occupy a bandwidth that is wider than the minimum bandwidth required
for the transmission of the original data signal. The ratio of the
bandwidth of the spread signal to the bandwidth of the original data
signal is known as the spreading factor.

• Resistance to Interference: DSSS offers resistance to interference and

jamming because the spread signal appears as noise to narrowband
interference. Interference from other signals or noise is effectively
spread out over the wider bandwidth, allowing the receiver to recover
the original signal by correlating it with the same spreading sequence
used for spreading at the transmitter.

• Processing Gain: One of the key advantages of DSSS is its ability to

provide processing gain, which is the ratio of the received signal power
to the interference power within the system bandwidth. The processing
gain improves the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) at the receiver, enhancing
the system's performance in noisy environments.

DSSS is commonly used in various wireless communication standards, including

IEEE 802.11b (Wi-Fi) and some forms of CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)
cellular systems. It offers advantages such as robustness against interference,
resistance to multipath fading, and compatibility with other narrowband
systems operating in the same frequency band.
Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS) is another modulation technique
used in wireless communication systems to spread the signal over a wider
bandwidth. Instead of spreading the signal in the frequency domain like DSSS,
FHSS spreads the signal by rapidly switching among multiple frequency
channels within a predefined frequency band.

Here's how FHSS works:

• Frequency Hopping Sequence: In FHSS, the transmitter and receiver are

synchronized to a common hopping sequence, which determines the
sequence of frequency channels to be used for transmission. This
hopping sequence is typically a pseudorandom sequence generated by
an algorithm known to both the transmitter and the receiver.

• Channel Hopping: At each time interval (symbol period), the transmitter

hops to a different frequency channel according to the hopping
sequence. The duration of time spent on each channel, known as the
dwell time, can vary depending on the system design and requirements.

• Wideband Signal: By rapidly switching among multiple frequency

channels, FHSS spreads the signal energy over a wider frequency band
 than the individual channel bandwidth. This spreading makes the signal
more resistant to interference and jamming, similar to DSSS.

• Synchronization: Synchronization between the transmitter and receiver

is critical in FHSS systems to ensure that both devices hop to the same
frequency channels at the same time. Synchronization is typically
achieved using synchronization signals embedded within the transmitted
data or through a separate synchronization channel.

• Interference Avoidance: FHSS offers robustness against narrowband

interference because the signal is only present on each frequency
channel for a short duration. This makes it difficult for narrowband
interferers to disrupt communication since they would need to
continuously occupy multiple channels simultaneously.

• Regulatory Compliance: FHSS is often used in wireless communication

systems operating in frequency bands where certain channels may be
subject to interference or regulatory restrictions. By hopping among
multiple channels, FHSS systems can adapt to changing environmental
conditions and regulatory requirements.

FHSS is utilized in various applications such as military communication systems,

wireless LANs (Local Area Networks), and Bluetooth technology. It offers
advantages such as interference resistance, coexistence with other systems in
the same frequency band, and regulatory compliance in dynamic spectrum
environments.
19 Why wireless networks are important? Differentiate Bluetooth and Wi-max.
Discuss the six different IEEE 802.11 family standards by giving its different
parameters.

Wireless networks are important because they allow devices to communicate

without the need for physical cables. They offer many benefits, including:

Mobility: Users can stay connected and access documents and apps while
moving around.

Accessibility: Wireless networks can provide access to areas that are difficult to
reach with wired networks.

Expandability: New users and locations can be added without the need to run
cables.

Guest access: Secure network access can be offered to guests while keeping
the network protected.

Cost-effective: Wireless networks can be cost-effective and eliminate the need

to install wired connections in different rooms.
Easy setup: Wi-Fi networks are easy to set up and configure, and most modern
devices have built-in Wi-Fi connectivity.

Multiple device connectivity: Wi-Fi networks can support multiple devices

at the same time.

 Bluetooth: With Bluetooth technology data is transmitted between cell

phones, computers and other networking devices over short distances.
Signals transmitting from Bluetooth cover short distances compared to
other modes of wireless communication i.e. up to 10 meters. Bluetooth
transfers the data at less than 1Mbps and operates in the frequency
range of 2.4 GHz. This technology comes under IEEE 802.15.

 Wi-Max: This technology uses long distance wireless networking and

high-speed Internet. It belongs to the IEEE 802.16 family of wireless
networking standards. WiMAX signals can function over a distance of
several miles (30 miles or 50 km) with data rates reaching up to 75
Mbps. It uses a fixed wireless application and mobile stations to provide
high-speed data, voice, video calls and Internet connectivity to users.

 802.11 (Wi-Fi): It applies to wireless LANs and uses FHSS or DSSS as the
frequency hopping spectrum. It allows the electronic device to connect
to using a wireless connection that is established in any network.

 802.11a: It is the second extension to the original 802.11 and it operates

in the 5GHz frequency band and supports bandwidth up to 54 Mbps by
using Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing. It has a fast maximum
speed, but is more sensitive to walls and other obstacles.

 802.11b: IEEE expanded the 802.11 by creating 802.11b specifications in

1999. This standard operates in the 2.4 GHz ISM band and it supports
bandwidth up to 11 Mbps by using direct-sequence spread spectrum
modulation.
 802.11d: It is an enhanced version of 802.11a and 802.11b. The standard
supports regulatory domains.

 802.11e: It defines the Quality of Service (QoS) for wireless applications.

The enhanced service is modified through the MAC layer. The standard
maintains the quality of video and audio streaming, real time online
applications, VoIP, etc.

 802.11g: It is an extension of 802.11 and supports a maximum

bandwidth of 54Mbps using the Orthogonal Frequency-Division
Multiplexing (OFDM) technology.

 802.11i: It is used as a standard for WLANs and provides improved

encryption for networks. 802.11i requires new protocols such as TKIP,
AES.

 802.11n: This standard aims to improve the 802.11g standard in terms of

bandwidth amount. It operates on both the 2.4 and 5 GHz bands and
supports a maximum data rate up to 300Mbps. It uses multiple
transmitters and receiver antennas (MIMO) to allow a maximum data
rate along with security improvements.

 802.11ac: It provides a high throughput network at the frequency of

5GHz. It is faster and more reliable than the 802.11n version. The
standard involves Gigabit networking that provides an instantaneous
data transfer experience.

 802.11ad: The standard works on the 60GHz spectrum. The data

propagation speed in this standard is a lot different from bands
operating on 2.4GHz and 5GHz. With a very high frequency spectrum,
the transfer speed is much higher than that of 802.11n.
20 Assume that a voice channel occupies a bandwidth of 4Khz. We need to
multiplex 20 voice channels with guard band of 400Hz using FDM. Calculate
the required bandwidth.