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Issues in Mobile Computing

Mobile computing, while offering tremendous flexibility, faces several inherent challenges:

• Limited Resources: Mobile devices have constraints in terms of battery life, processing
power, memory, and screen size compared to their desktop counterparts. Efficient
resource management is crucial.

• Connectivity and Network Issues: Mobile devices rely on wireless networks which can
be unreliable, have varying bandwidth, and experience frequent disconnections.
Managing handoffs between different networks (cellular, Wi-Fi) and dealing with
intermittent connectivity are significant challenges.

• Security and Privacy: Mobile devices store a wealth of personal and sensitive data,
making them attractive targets for security threats. Issues include malware, data
interception over wireless networks, physical theft, and unauthorized access.

• Portability Challenges: The very nature of mobility introduces challenges like device loss
or theft, and the need for devices to be robust and operate in diverse environmental
conditions.

• User Interface and Interaction: Designing user interfaces that are effective and easy to
use on small touchscreens while on the move presents a unique set of challenges. Input
methods can be cumbersome, and displaying large amounts of information can be
difficult.

• Power Management: Extending battery life is a constant concern. Applications and

hardware need to be power-efficient, and effective power management strategies are
essential.

• Software Compatibility and Fragmentation: The mobile ecosystem is diverse, with

different operating systems (Android, iOS), versions, and device capabilities. Ensuring
application compatibility across this fragmented landscape can be complex for
developers.

• Location Management: Many mobile applications rely on location information.

Accurately tracking and managing user locations while respecting privacy is a technical
and ethical challenge.

Characteristics of Mobile Computing

Mobile computing is defined by several key characteristics:

 • Mobility: This is the most fundamental characteristic, referring to the ability of users and
devices to move freely while maintaining network connectivity and access to services.

• Portability: Mobile devices are designed to be small, lightweight, and easily carried by
users. This physical attribute enables mobility.

• Connectivity: Mobile computing relies on wireless communication technologies (e.g.,

Wi-Fi, cellular networks, Bluetooth) to establish and maintain network connections.

• Ubiquity: The goal of mobile computing is to provide access to information and services
"anytime, anywhere." This implies a pervasive computing environment.

• Context Awareness: Mobile devices can sense and adapt to their environment, including
location, time, network conditions, and user preferences, to provide more relevant
services.

• Personalization: Mobile devices are often personal tools, and mobile computing allows
for a high degree of customization and tailoring of services to individual user needs.

• Resource Constraints: As mentioned earlier, mobile devices operate with limited

resources, which influences the design of both hardware and software.

Structure of Mobile Computing

A typical mobile computing system can be viewed as having the following key components:

1. Mobile Devices: These are the portable hardware devices used by users to interact with
the system. Examples include smartphones, tablets, laptops, and wearable devices. They
provide the user interface and processing capabilities.

2. Mobile Operating System (OS): This is the software platform that manages the hardware
and software resources on the mobile device. Examples include Android and iOS. The OS
provides an environment for applications to run.

3. Mobile Communication Network: This is the underlying infrastructure that enables

wireless communication between mobile devices and servers or other devices. It
includes cellular networks, Wi-Fi networks, and other wireless technologies.

4. Application Servers and Databases: These are the backend systems that host the
applications and data accessed by mobile devices. They handle data storage, processing,
and delivery of services.

5. Middleware: This software layer often sits between the mobile OS and the application
servers. It can provide services such as data synchronization, security, and connectivity
management, simplifying application development.
 6. Applications: These are the software programs designed to run on mobile devices and
provide specific functionalities to users, such as communication, productivity,
entertainment, and information access.

In a simplified three-tier architecture for mobile applications:

• Presentation Tier (User Interface): This layer runs on the mobile device and is
responsible for displaying information to the user and capturing user input.

• Application Logic Tier: This layer resides on the application server and contains the core
business logic of the application, processing user requests and managing data.

• Data Tier: This layer is also typically on the server and is responsible for storing and
retrieving the application's data, often using databases.

Overview of Wireless Telephony: Cellular Concept

Wireless telephony, particularly cellular technology, revolutionized mobile communication. The

cellular concept is the fundamental principle behind modern mobile phone networks. It
addresses the challenge of providing wide area coverage and high user capacity with a limited
radio frequency spectrum.

Here's a breakdown of the cellular concept:

• Cells: The geographical area served by a mobile network is divided into smaller regions
called "cells." Each cell is served by a base station (BS), also known as a cell site or
tower.

• Frequency Reuse: A key aspect of the cellular concept is the ability to reuse the same
radio frequencies in different cells that are geographically separated. This significantly
increases the capacity of the network. Adjacent cells use different sets of frequencies to
avoid interference.

• Base Stations (Cell Sites): Each cell has a base station that contains transmitters,
receivers, and control equipment. The base station communicates wirelessly with mobile
devices (user equipment - UE) within its cell.

• Mobile Switching Center (MSC): The base stations within a larger area are connected to
a Mobile Switching Center (MSC). The MSC is a central control node that manages call
setup, routing, and handovers between cells.

• Handoff (or Handover): As a mobile device moves from one cell to another during a call
or data session, the network performs a "handoff." This is the process of seamlessly
 transferring the connection from the base station of the old cell to the base station of
the new cell without interrupting the user's service.

• Cellular Network Structure: The arrangement of cells is often depicted as a hexagonal

grid for theoretical planning, although real-world cell shapes are irregular due to terrain
and other factors. Groups of cells form clusters, and the frequency reuse pattern is
designed across these clusters.

• Trunking: Cellular systems efficiently use the available radio channels through a
technique called trunking. Instead of dedicating a channel to each user, channels are
shared among users within a cell and are allocated on demand when a call is made.

The cellular concept allows for:

• Increased Capacity: By reusing frequencies, a cellular network can support a much

larger number of users compared to a single large transmitter.

• Wide Area Coverage: By deploying a network of interconnected cells, seamless

communication is possible over vast geographical areas.

• Efficient Spectrum Utilization: The limited radio frequency spectrum is used more
effectively.

• Lower Power Transmission: Base stations and mobile devices can use lower
transmission power since they only need to cover a smaller cell area.

UNIT = 2
You're looking for an even deeper dive into these topics! Let's
meticulously dissect each area of the evaluation of mobile systems and
wireless networks, and then explore the intricacies of wireless
networking concepts.
I. Detailed Evaluation of Mobile Systems and Wireless Networks: GSM,
CDMA, FDMA, TDMA
When we rigorously evaluate these fundamental multiple access
techniques, we delve into their inherent characteristics, strengths,
weaknesses, and suitability for different scenarios.
1. GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications)
• Core Technology: TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access)
o Mechanism: The available radio frequency band is divided
into channels (typically 200 kHz). Each channel is then
further segmented in the time domain into frames, and each
frame is divided into a specific number of time slots (usually
8 for full-rate traffic channels). Each user is allocated one or
more time slots within a frame for both transmission (uplink)
and reception (downlink).
o Synchronization: Precise time synchronization is crucial
between the base station (BTS) and the mobile station (MS)
to ensure that each device transmits and receives within its
assigned time slots without interfering with others.
o Frame Structure: GSM defines specific frame structures for
different types of channels (traffic channels for voice and
data, and control channels for signaling). These frames are
repeated periodically.
o Advantages:
▪ Mature Technology: GSM was one of the earliest
digital cellular standards and benefited from extensive
development and global deployment.
 ▪ Good Voice Quality: Designed primarily for voice, it
offered relatively good voice quality for its time.
▪ International Roaming: Strong emphasis on
international standards facilitated seamless roaming
across different networks.
▪ Security Features: Introduced encryption algorithms
(like A5/1) for securing voice and data transmissions
(though these have faced scrutiny over time).
▪ SMS (Short Message Service): Pioneered text
messaging as a mainstream application.
o Disadvantages:
▪ Limited Data Rates (Initial): The original GSM offered
very low data rates. GPRS and EDGE were later
enhancements to improve this but still lagged behind
3G technologies.
▪ Fixed Time Slot Allocation: Inefficient for bursty data
traffic, as a user's allocated time slot might be idle even
if they have no data to send, while other users might
be waiting.
▪ Capacity Limitations: While TDMA is more efficient
than FDMA, the capacity is still limited by the number
of time slots and the frequency reuse factor.
▪ Susceptibility to Timing Issues: Performance can be
affected by timing inaccuracies or propagation delays,
especially in larger cells.
 o Evolution: GPRS (General Packet Radio Service) introduced
packet switching over the GSM infrastructure, allowing for
"always-on" data connections and higher data rates. EDGE
(Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution) further improved
data rates by employing more sophisticated modulation
techniques.
2. CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)
• Core Technology: CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)
o Mechanism: Unlike FDMA and TDMA, CDMA allows all users
to transmit simultaneously over the entire available
frequency spectrum. Each user's signal is encoded with a
unique pseudo-random noise (PN) spreading code. At the
receiver, the same code is used to despread the desired
signal, while other signals appear as wideband noise and are
filtered out.
o Spreading Codes: The choice of spreading codes is critical.
They must have low cross-correlation to minimize
interference between users. Orthogonal codes are ideal but
are limited in number, especially in the downlink. Pseudo-
random codes with good auto-correlation and low cross-
correlation properties are commonly used.
o Power Control: Precise power control is essential in CDMA
systems. If one user's signal is too strong, it can overpower
the weaker signals of other users (near-far problem). The
base station constantly monitors and adjusts the transmit
power of mobile stations.
o Soft Handoff: A key advantage of CDMA is the ability for a
mobile station to communicate with multiple base stations
simultaneously during a handoff. This "make-before-break"
approach significantly reduces the probability of dropped
calls and provides a smoother transition between cells.
o Capacity: CDMA capacity is "soft" and interference-limited.
As more users are added, the overall interference level
increases, potentially reducing the quality of service for all
users. Sophisticated techniques like sectorization and power
control help manage capacity.
o Advantages:
▪ Potentially Higher Capacity: Under optimal conditions
and with effective power control, CDMA can offer
higher spectral efficiency and user capacity compared
to TDMA in some scenarios.
▪ Soft Handoff: Provides a more reliable and seamless
handover process.
▪ Interference Resilience: The spread spectrum nature
of CDMA makes it more resistant to narrowband
interference.
▪ Flexible Data Rates: CDMA systems can often support
variable data rates more easily.
o Disadvantages:
▪ Near-Far Problem: Requires sophisticated and accurate
power control mechanisms.
 ▪ Complex Implementation: Signal processing in CDMA
systems (encoding, spreading, despreading,
correlation) is more complex than in FDMA or basic
TDMA.
▪ Self-Interference: Signals from other users within the
same cell contribute to the overall noise level.
▪ Capacity Management: Managing capacity effectively
requires careful control of interference levels.
o Standards: IS-95 was an early 2G CDMA standard.
CDMA2000 evolved into a 3G standard offering higher data
rates (1xRTT, EV-DO).
3. FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access)
• Core Technology: FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access)
o Mechanism: The total available radio frequency spectrum is
divided into a set of distinct, non-overlapping frequency
channels. Each user is allocated a dedicated frequency
channel for the entire duration of their communication. To
prevent interference between adjacent channels, guard
bands (unused frequency ranges) are inserted.
o Channel Allocation: Channels can be assigned to users on a
fixed basis or dynamically upon request.
o Duplexing: FDMA systems typically use Frequency Division
Duplexing (FDD), where separate frequency bands are used
for the uplink and downlink transmissions of a single user.
o Advantages:
 ▪ Simple Implementation: Conceptually and technically,
FDMA is relatively straightforward to implement.
▪ No Timing Issues: Unlike TDMA, precise time
synchronization between the base station and mobile
station is not critical.
▪ Well-Established Technology: Used in early analog
mobile systems and some satellite communication
systems.
o Disadvantages:
▪ Inefficient Spectrum Utilization: Fixed frequency
assignments can lead to significant wastage of
spectrum, especially with bursty traffic. A channel
allocated to a user might remain idle for long periods.
Guard bands further reduce the usable spectrum.
▪ Limited Capacity: The number of simultaneous users is
directly limited by the number of available frequency
channels.
▪ Difficult Handoff: Handoffs typically involve switching
to a completely different frequency channel, which can
be more disruptive.
▪ Less Flexible Data Rates: Supporting variable data rates
can be challenging with fixed frequency channel
allocations.
o Use: Primarily found in older analog systems like AMPS
(Advanced Mobile Phone System) and some first-generation
 digital systems. Modern cellular systems have largely moved
towards more efficient techniques like TDMA, CDMA, and
OFDMA.
4. TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access)
• Core Technology: TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access)
o Mechanism: The available radio frequency band is divided
into one or more frequency channels. Each channel is then
divided in the time domain into a series of time slots.
Multiple users share the same frequency channel by taking
turns to transmit and receive within their allocated time
slots.
o Frame and Slot Structure: Time is organized into frames, and
each frame contains a fixed number of time slots. The
duration and number of slots can vary depending on the
specific TDMA standard.
o Synchronization: Accurate time synchronization is essential
to ensure that each mobile station transmits and receives
within its assigned time slots and does not interfere with
other users on the same frequency channel.
o Duplexing: TDMA systems can use either Frequency Division
Duplexing (FDD) or Time Division Duplexing (TDD). In TDD,
uplink and downlink transmissions occur on the same
frequency channel but in different time slots.
o Advantages:
 ▪ Improved Spectrum Efficiency (vs. FDMA): Multiple
users share the same frequency channel, leading to
better utilization of the available spectrum compared
to FDMA's dedicated channel approach.
▪ Flexibility for Data Rates: The number of time slots
allocated to a user can be varied to support different
data rate requirements.
▪ Digital Technology: Inherently suited for digital
transmission, allowing for easier integration of voice
and data services.
o Disadvantages:
▪ Complexity (vs. FDMA): Requires more complex timing
and synchronization mechanisms.
▪ Inefficiency with Bursty Traffic (Fixed Slot Allocation):
Similar to GSM's initial limitations, fixed time slot
allocation can be inefficient for highly variable data
traffic.
▪ Capacity Limitations: Capacity is determined by the
number of time slots per channel and the frequency
reuse factor.
▪ Susceptibility to Timing Issues: Propagation delays can
affect the timing of bursts, especially in larger cells.
o Standards: Used in GSM, IS-136 (another 2G standard), and
DECT (Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications).
II. Detailed Explanation of Wireless Networking Concepts
Let's now delve deeper into the various aspects of wireless networking.
1. Wireless LAN (WLAN) Overview (IEEE 802.11 Standards - Wi-Fi)
• Detailed Operation:
o Infrastructure Mode: The most common mode, where
wireless clients communicate through an Access Point (AP).
The AP acts as a central hub and provides a bridge to the
wired network.
o Ad-Hoc Mode (Peer-to-Peer): Wireless clients communicate
directly with each other without an AP. Less common for
general internet access but used for direct device-to-device
connections.
o Medium Access Control (MAC) - CSMA/CA: WLANs primarily
use Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance
(CSMA/CA).
▪ Carrier Sense (CS): A station listens to the wireless
medium before attempting to transmit to check if it is
idle.
▪ Inter-Frame Spaces (IFS): Different types of IFSs (e.g.,
DIFS, SIFS) are used to prioritize different types of
traffic and control frames.
▪ Collision Avoidance (CA): Mechanisms like the optional
Request to Send/Clear to Send (RTS/CTS) handshake
can be used to reserve the medium and reduce the
likelihood of collisions, especially in scenarios with
 hidden nodes (where two stations can't hear each
other but can both hear the AP).
▪ Acknowledgement (ACK): After a successful unicast
data transmission, the receiver sends an ACK frame to
confirm receipt. If an ACK is not received, the sender
retransmits the frame.
o Service Set Identifier (SSID): The name of the wireless
network, broadcast by the AP to allow clients to identify and
connect to it.
o Basic Service Set (BSS): A single AP and its associated clients
(in infrastructure mode).
o Extended Service Set (ESS): Multiple BSSs connected via a
wired distribution system (e.g., Ethernet), providing wider
coverage and seamless roaming for clients.
o Frequency Bands: Operates primarily in the 2.4 GHz and 5
GHz unlicensed ISM bands, with newer standards also
utilizing the 6 GHz band. Different channels within these
bands are used to minimize interference between adjacent
WLANs.
o Modulation Techniques: Evolved from simpler modulation
schemes (e.g., DSSS, FHSS in early standards) to more
complex and efficient techniques like OFDM (Orthogonal
Frequency Division Multiplexing) and OFDMA in modern
standards, enabling higher data rates.
o MIMO (Multiple-Input Multiple-Output): Utilizes multiple
antennas at both the transmitter and receiver to improve
 data rates and reliability by exploiting multipath
propagation.
o Security Protocols (Detailed):
▪ WEP (Wired Equivalent Privacy): The original security
protocol, found to have significant vulnerabilities and is
no longer considered secure.
▪ WPA (Wi-Fi Protected Access): An interim security
standard that addressed many of WEP's weaknesses,
using TKIP (Temporal Key Integrity Protocol)
encryption.
▪ WPA2: A more robust standard using AES (Advanced
Encryption Standard) for encryption in the CCMP
(Counter Mode with Cipher Block Chaining Message
Authentication Code Protocol) mode.
▪ WPA3: The latest standard offering enhanced security
features like Simultaneous Authentication of Equals
(SAE) for stronger initial authentication and individual
data encryption.
o Quality of Service (QoS): Standards like 802.11e introduce
mechanisms for prioritizing different types of traffic (e.g.,
voice, video) to improve the user experience for real-time
applications.
2. Bluetooth
• Detailed Operation:
o Piconets and Scatternets:
 ▪ Piconet: A collection of up to eight active Bluetooth
devices (one master and up to seven slaves)
communicating within a short range. The master
device controls the communication within the piconet.
▪ Scatternet: Multiple piconets can be interconnected to
form a larger network called a scatternet. Devices can
act as both a master in one piconet and a slave in
another, facilitating communication between the
piconets.
o Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS): Bluetooth
operates in the 2.4 GHz ISM band and uses FHSS to minimize
interference. Devices rapidly hop between 79 different
frequencies (in the 2.402-2.480 GHz range) according to a
pseudo-random hopping sequence. This makes it more
resilient to narrowband interference and also provides a
degree of security.
o Pairing Process: Before two Bluetooth devices can
communicate, they typically need to be paired. This involves
a process of mutual authentication and the exchange of link
keys, which are then used to encrypt subsequent
communication. Different pairing methods exist, including
numeric comparison, passkey entry, and "just works."
o Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE): Introduced in Bluetooth 4.0,
BLE is designed for low power consumption and is ideal for
applications like wearables, sensors, and IoT devices that
need to operate for long periods on small batteries. BLE uses
 a different protocol stack and operates in a slightly different
way than classic Bluetooth.
o Profiles (Detailed Examples): Bluetooth profiles define how
the technology is used for specific applications. Examples
include:
▪ A2DP (Advanced Audio Distribution Profile): For
streaming high-quality stereo audio (e.g., to wireless
headphones or speakers).
▪ HFP (Hands-Free Profile): For making and receiving
phone calls hands-free (e.g., in a car).
▪ HID (Human Interface Device Profile): For connecting
wireless keyboards, mice, and other input devices.
▪ GATT (Generic Attribute Profile): The foundation for
BLE communication, used by many BLE applications to
exchange structured data (e.g., heart rate monitors,
fitness trackers).
o Security: Bluetooth incorporates various security features,
including encryption using link keys, authentication during
pairing, and mechanisms to prevent eavesdropping and
man-in-the-middle attacks. The security mechanisms have
evolved with different Bluetooth versions.
3. Wireless Multiple Access Protocols (Detailed)
• Contention-Based Protocols (Random Access) - Further
Elaboration:
 o Aloha and Slotted Aloha: Pure Aloha has a maximum
theoretical throughput of only around 18.4%, while Slotted
Aloha improves this to about 36.8% by synchronizing
transmissions to time slots. However, both are inefficient
under heavy load due to frequent collisions.
o CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access): The "listen before
talk" principle. Different persistence strategies exist (e.g., 1-
persistent, p-persistent) that dictate how aggressively a
station tries to retransmit after the channel becomes idle.
o CSMA/CA (Collision Avoidance): The RTS/CTS mechanism in
802.11 is a key part of collision avoidance. The sender first
sends an RTS (Request to Send) frame to the receiver
(typically the AP). If the receiver is ready, it responds with a
CTS (Clear to Send) frame. All other stations that hear either
the RTS or CTS refrain from transmitting for the duration of
the data transfer, helping to avoid collisions, especially
around the receiver.
o MACA (Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance): Designed
for ad hoc networks where there might not be a central AP. A
sender transmits an RTS to the intended receiver. The
receiver replies with a CTS. Neighbors hearing either frame
defer their transmissions. Variations like MACAW (MACA for
Wireless) include mechanisms for fairness and congestion
control.
• Controlled Access Protocols - Further Elaboration:
o Polling: Can be efficient when traffic is predictable and the
central controller has good knowledge of the network.
 However, it can introduce delays if a device has data to send
but has to wait for its turn to be polled.
o Token Passing: Provides guaranteed access and avoids
collisions. However, it can have overhead associated with
passing the token, and a device without the token cannot
transmit even if the channel is idle. Typically used in ring-
based network topologies, less common in general wireless
access networks.
• Channel Partitioning Protocols - Further Elaboration:
o OFDMA (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access): A
key technology in modern cellular systems (LTE, 5G) and Wi-
Fi 6/6E. It divides the available bandwidth into a large
number of narrow sub-carriers that are orthogonal to each
other (minimizing interference). These sub-carriers can then
be grouped and allocated to individual users, providing fine-
grained resource allocation and improved efficiency,
especially for diverse traffic types and a large number of
users.
4. TCP over Wireless (Detailed Challenges and Solutions)
• Detailed Challenges:
o High Bit Error Rates: Wireless channels are inherently more
noisy and prone to interference (e.g., fading, multipath
effects), leading to higher packet loss rates compared to
wired networks.
o **Variable Band
1. Wireless Applications

Definition:
Wireless applications are software or services that utilize wireless
communication technologies to offer functionality and data access to
users without a physical wired connection.

Examples:
• Mobile Banking Apps – Access financial services via mobile
networks.
• GPS Navigation – Uses satellites and mobile internet.
• Health Monitoring Systems – Wearable devices transmitting
health data.
• Smart Homes – IoT devices controlled wirelessly.
• E-learning Apps – Deliver educational content over Wi-Fi or
4G/5G.
• Push Notifications – Real-time alerts from apps via wireless
internet.

Features:
• Mobility: Accessible from anywhere.
• Real-time Communication: Instant messaging, live streams.
• Location-awareness: Services adapt based on GPS location.
• Bandwidth Adaptability: Adjusts to available network quality.
• Platform Independence: Works on various devices (smartphones,
tablets, etc.).
 Challenges:
• Security – Wireless networks are more vulnerable to hacking.
• Latency – Delays may occur in data transmission.
• Power Consumption – Continuous wireless usage drains battery.
• Network Coverage – Inconsistent access in rural/remote areas.

2. Data Broadcasting

Definition:
Data broadcasting is the transmission of information from one source
to many recipients simultaneously over wireless channels. Unlike
unicast or multicast, it doesn't target specific users—everyone can
receive the data.

Applications:
• Digital TV and Radio – Channels are broadcasted to multiple
receivers.
• Stock Market Ticker Services – Real-time data sent to financial
platforms.
• Weather and Emergency Alerts – Sent to large geographical areas.
• Traffic Updates – For navigation apps and public displays.
• News Services – Live headlines or sports updates.

Techniques:
 • Push Model: Data is sent periodically to all users (no request
needed).
• Pull Model: Users send requests for specific data.
• Broadcast Disks: Circularly scheduled data broadcast to allow
predictable access time.
• Indexing: Helps users know when to listen for their data (reduces
energy use).

Features:
• Efficient Bandwidth Use: One transmission serves many.
• Energy Saving: For low-power devices that listen selectively.
• No Need for Acknowledgment: Reduces communication
overhead.

3. Mobile IP

Definition:
Mobile IP is a network layer protocol (developed by IETF) that allows a
device (called a mobile node) to move across different networks while
keeping its permanent IP address.

Key Components:
• Mobile Node (MN): Device moving across networks.
• Home Agent (HA): Located in the home network, maintains MN's
permanent IP address.
 • Foreign Agent (FA): Located in the visited (foreign) network,
assigns a Care-of Address (CoA).
• Care-of Address (CoA): Temporary IP used by MN while visiting
another network.

Working Mechanism:
1. MN moves to a foreign network.
2. MN registers its CoA with its HA.
3. HA intercepts packets sent to MN's permanent IP and tunnels
them to the CoA.
4. FA delivers packets to MN or MN uses CoA directly.

Encapsulation:
Packets are encapsulated using tunneling (usually IP-in-IP) to reach the
MN via its CoA.

Benefits:
• Seamless internet connectivity across networks.
• Transparent to higher-layer protocols (like TCP).
• Supports mobility in IP networks (used in early mobile internet
solutions).

Limitations:
• Triangle routing problem: Packets go through HA even if sender
and MN are nearby.
• Overhead from encapsulation and frequent updates.
4. WAP (Wireless Application Protocol)

Definition:
WAP is a standard protocol suite that enables mobile devices
(especially early-generation phones) to access internet services over
wireless networks.

Why WAP Was Needed:

Early mobile phones had:
• Low processing power.
• Small screens.
• Limited bandwidth (~10-100 kbps).
WAP made it possible to access web-like services despite these
limitations.

WAP Architecture:
• WAP Client (Mobile Phone) – Has a micro-browser that
understands WML.
• WAP Gateway/Proxy – Converts internet content into WAP-
friendly format.
• Web Server – Hosts the original content in HTML.

WML (Wireless Markup Language):

• A stripped-down version of HTML.
• Optimized for small screens and low bandwidth.
 Working Process:
1. User requests a WAP page.
2. WAP gateway fetches and converts HTML to WML.
3. WML page is sent back to the mobile device for display.

Advantages (at the time):

• Allowed internet browsing on early mobile devices.
• Lightweight and optimized for narrowband wireless.

Why WAP Became Obsolete:

• Rise of smartphones with full web browsers (e.g., Safari, Chrome).
• Faster mobile internet (3G/4G/5G).
• Responsive web design and mobile apps replaced WML-based
sites.