• OS/2: File Management System Analysis

OS/2 introduced HPFS (High-Performance File System), which significantly improved upon DOS’s FAT system.
HPFS supported longer filenames of up to 255 characters and larger disk sizes. Its use of B+ tree data
structures enabled faster file access, while its intelligent storage techniques helped reduce fragmentation.
Additionally, the Installable File System (IFS) provided adaptability for future storage media, while
maintaining backward compatibility with older systems.

• A Critical Evaluation of the Treatment of Deleted Files in Microsoft Windows

Operating Systems
This paper discusses a core conflict in Windows OS regarding deleted file handling. One side advocates for
complete file erasure to enhance privacy and security, while the other supports retaining deleted files for
forensic analysis and accidental recovery. The key finding is that there is no clear solution, as both
approaches have valid justifications. The authors emphasize the need for further research to balance privacy
concerns with forensic utility, considering broader societal benefits.

• Research on Embedded File Management System Based on Forth Virtual Machine

This research focused on an embedded file management system using a Forth virtual machine, with an SD
card as external storage. The system enabled online editing, loading, and updating of Forth programs
without downtime. Key features included buffer management, a screen editor, and dynamic loading
capabilities, successfully tested on the ATmega328p microcontroller. The finding shows enhanced flexibility
and maintainability for embedded applications.

• The Ubiquitous Digital File: A Review of File Management

This review highlights three key areas: identifying factors influencing file management behaviors, such as
user expertise and technological advancements; designing novel interfaces to enhance user experience; and
addressing the gap in research dedicated to file management. The authors stress the need for innovative
solutions to help users manage the increasing complexity of modern file interactions effectively.
Diagrams Explained
Key components of the diagram:

• Beginning: This indicates the starting point of the file.

• End: This indicates the end of the file.

• Blocks: The file is divided into smaller units called blocks. Each block contains a portion of the data.

• Arrows: The arrows represent the sequential access process. They show the direction in which the
system moves from one block to the next to access the data.

How sequential access works:

1. Starting at the beginning: The system starts reading data from the first block (Block-1).

2. Moving to the next block: After processing the data in Block-1, the system moves on to the next
block (Block-2).

3. Continuing sequentially: This process continues, block by block, until the desired data is found or the
end of the file is reached.

Key components of the diagram:

• End: This indicates the end of the file.

• Blocks: The file is divided into smaller units called blocks. Each block contains a portion of the data.

• Current: This represents the current position within the file.

• Go to N: This indicates the ability to directly jump to any block (N) within the file.

How direct access works:

1. Determining the block number: To access a specific piece of data, you need to determine the block
number where it is located. This information is typically stored in a directory or index structure
associated with the file.

2. Directly accessing the block: The system can then directly jump to the desired block without having
to read all the preceding blocks.

3. Reading the data: Once the block is accessed, the system can read the data contained within it.
Applications of File access methods
Next, let's look at file access methods in operating systems. These methods determine how the system reads
from or writes to files, which is crucial for efficient data management.
These methods optimize performance based on the specific requirements of different applications.

Sequential Access:

• Text file processing is used in word processors like Notepad, where data is read or written in a
continuous sequence.

• System administrators often analyze server logs sequentially to track events or errors over time.

Direct (or Random) Access:

• In database management systems like MySQL, direct access allows retrieval of specific records
without scanning the entire dataset.

• Multimedia applications, such as video players, use random access to jump to a specific scene or
timestamp in a movie.

Indexed Access:

• Library catalog systems use indexed access to quickly find a specific book by its title or author in large
databases.

• Search engines like Google rely on indexed access to rapidly retrieve relevant web pages from vast
amounts of stored data.
GIT
Sequential Access:

• When Git processes a log of commits, it often reads through the commit history sequentially. For
example, when you run the command git log, Git reads the commit history in order from the most
recent commit to the oldest, displaying each commit message one after the other.

Direct (or Random) Access:

• Git uses direct access to quickly retrieve specific objects from its database. For instance, when you
check out a particular commit using git checkout <commit_hash>, Git directly accesses the specific
object in its object database that corresponds to that commit, allowing for quick retrieval without
scanning through all commits.

Indexed Access:

• Git employs an indexed access mechanism with its staging area, known as the index. When you stage
changes using git add, Git updates the index to keep track of what changes are ready to be
committed. This index allows Git to quickly locate files that have been modified, enabling efficient
commits without having to traverse through the entire project directory each time.

DBMS:
Sequential Access:

In a DBMS, sequential access is often used when executing queries that require processing records in a
specific order. For instance, when running a query to retrieve all customer records sorted by last name, the
DBMS reads through the records sequentially, processing each row one after the other until the desired
result set is obtained.

Direct (or Random) Access:

DBMSs utilize direct access to quickly retrieve specific records using unique identifiers, such as primary keys.
For example, when you execute a query like SELECT * FROM customers WHERE customer_id = 123, the DBMS
directly accesses the record corresponding to the customer ID of 123, allowing for rapid retrieval without
scanning through all records in the table.

Indexed Access:

A DBMS employs indexed access to enhance query performance significantly. When an index is created on a
column, such as a customer's last name, the DBMS can quickly locate records based on that index. For
instance, when querying for all customers with the last name "Smith," the DBMS can use the index to rapidly
find all matching records without having to perform a full table scan, thereby optimizing data retrieval times.
 HPFS (High-Performance File System): A file system introduced by OS/2 that improves upon older file
systems like FAT (File Allocation Table). HPFS was designed to enhance performance, especially in handling
larger files and disk sizes.

FAT (File Allocation Table): A simple file system used in MS-DOS and early Windows operating systems. It
has limitations, such as short filename support (up to 8 characters plus a 3-character extension) and
inefficiencies with larger disk sizes, leading to fragmentation.

Longer Filenames: HPFS allowed filenames up to 255 characters, which is a significant improvement over
the FAT system that restricted filenames to a maximum of 8 characters plus a 3-character extension (e.g.,
FILE.TXT).

Larger Disk Sizes: HPFS can efficiently manage larger disks compared to FAT, allowing for better storage
management and usage of modern hard drives.

B+ Tree Data Structures: A type of balanced tree data structure used to maintain sorted data and enable
efficient insertion, deletion, and search operations. B+ trees are particularly effective for file systems because
they allow for quick access to files, even as the number of files increases.

Faster File Access: Refers to the improved speed of reading from and writing to the file system. With B+
trees, file locations can be found more quickly compared to traditional methods used in FAT.

Intelligent Storage Techniques: Methods used by HPFS to optimize how files are stored on disk to minimize
fragmentation and maximize space efficiency. This can involve organizing data in a way that keeps related
files close together on the disk.

Fragmentation: This occurs when a file is broken into pieces scattered across the disk rather than being
stored in contiguous blocks. HPFS's techniques aimed to reduce this issue, leading to improved performance
and access times.

Installable File System (IFS): A component of OS/2 that allows for the addition of new file systems to the
operating system. This means that as new storage technologies emerge, OS/2 could be updated to support
them without needing a complete overhaul.

Backward Compatibility: The ability of a system to work with or use the features of older systems. In this
context, HPFS and IFS were designed to ensure that OS/2 could still access and manage files created with
earlier systems like DOS.