KEYS:
1. 32
2. In the ATmega32, there are three pins assigned to Vcc (power supply) and
three pins assigned to GND (ground).
3. In the ATmega32, there are 23 pins designated as I/O port pins.
4. In the ATmega32 40-pin DIP package, PORTA consists of 8 pins, numbered
PA0 to PA7. These correspond to the following pin numbers on the DIP
package:
- PA0: Pin 40
- PA1: Pin 39
- PA2: Pin 38
- PA3: Pin 37
- PA4: Pin 36
- PA5: Pin 35
- PA6: Pin 34
- PA7: Pin 33
These pins can be used for various I/O functions as configured in the
microcontroller.
5. In the ATmega32 40-pin DIP package, PORTB consists of 8 pins, numbered
PB0 to PB7. These correspond to the following pin numbers on the DIP
package:
- PB0: Pin 16
- PB1: Pin 15
- PB2: Pin 14
- PB3: Pin 13
- PB4: Pin 12
- PB5: Pin 11
- PB6: Pin 10
- PB7: Pin 9
These pins can be configured for various I/O functions.
6. In the ATmega32 40-pin DIP package, PORTC consists of 7 pins, numbered
PC0 to PC6. These correspond to the following pin numbers on the DIP
package:
- PC0: Pin 23
- PC1: Pin 22
- PC2: Pin 21
- PC3: Pin 20
- PC4: Pin 19
- PC5: Pin 18
- PC6: Pin 17
These pins can be used for various I/O functions as configured in the
microcontroller.
7. In the ATmega32 40-pin DIP package, PORTD consists of 8 pins, numbered
PD0 to PD7. These correspond to the following pin numbers on the DIP
package:
- PD0: Pin 2
- PD1: Pin 3
- PD2: Pin 4
- PD3: Pin 5
- PD4: Pin 6
- PD5: Pin 7
- PD6: Pin 8
- PD7: Pin 9
These pins can be configured for various I/O functions, including external
interrupts.
8. Input
9. In microcontrollers, particularly in AVR architecture, `DDRx` and `PORTx`
are crucial for managing I/O operations.
* DDRx (Data Direction Register)
- Function: It determines the direction of the pins associated with a specific
port (x).
- Configuration:
- A bit set to `1` makes the corresponding pin an **output**.
- A bit set to `0` makes the corresponding pin an **input**.
* PORTx (Data Register)
- Function: It controls the output level of the pins configured as outputs and
influences the behavior of pins configured as inputs (when using pull-up
resistors).
- Behavior:
- If a bit is set to `1`, the corresponding output pin is driven high (logic level
‘1’).
- If a bit is set to `0`, the corresponding output pin is driven low (logic level
‘0’).
- For input pins, setting the bit in `PORTx` enables the internal pull-up
resistor for that pin, keeping it at a high level unless driven low externally.
Summary
Configure Direction: Use `DDRx` to set pin directions (input or output).
Set Output Levels: Use `PORTx` to drive output pins high or low, or to
enable pull-ups for input pins.
11. #include <avr/io.h>
Int main(void) {
// Set PORTB and PORTC as output
DDRB = 0xFF; // Set all bits of PORTB as output
DDRC = 0xFF; // Set all bits of PORTC as output
DDRD = 0x00; // Set all bits of PORTD as input
While (1) {
// Read data from PORTD
Uint8_t data = PIND; // PIND is the input register for PORTD
// Send data to PORTB and PORTC
PORTB = data; // Write data to PORTB
PORTC = data; // Write data to PORTC
Return 0;
10. #include <avr/io.h>
Int main(void) {
// Set PORTB and PORTD as output
DDRB = 0xFF; // Set all bits of PORTB as output
DDRD = 0xFF; // Set all bits of PORTD as output
DDRC = 0x00; // Set all bits of PORTC as input
While (1) {
// Read data from PORTC
Uint8_t data = PINC; // PINC is the input register for PORTC
// Send data to PORTB and PORTD
PORTB = data; // Write data to PORTB
PORTD = data; // Write data to PORTD
Return 0;
12. RxD: Typically PD0 (Pin 0 of PORTD)
TxD: Typically PD1 (Pin 1 of PORTD)
13. DDRA (Data Direction Register for Port A):
Address: 0x3A
DDRB (Data Direction Register for Port B):
Address: 0x37
DDRC (Data Direction Register for Port C):
Address: 0x34
14.
a) #include <avr/io.h>
#include <util/delay.h>
Int main(void) {
// Set PORTB and PORTC as output
DDRB = 0xFF; // Set all bits of PORTB as output
DDRC = 0xFF; // Set all bits of PORTC as output
While (1) {
// Toggle PORTB and PORTC using 0xAA and 0x55
PORTB = 0xAA; // Set PORTB to 0b10101010
PORTC = 0xAA; // Set PORTC to 0b10101010
_delay_ms(500); // Delay for visibility
PORTB = 0x55; // Set PORTB to 0b01010101
PORTC = 0x55; // Set PORTC to 0b01010101
_delay_ms(500); // Delay for visibility
Return 0;
b) #include <avr/io.h>
#include <util/delay.h>
Int main(void) {
// Set PORTB and PORTC as output
DDRB = 0xFF; // Set all bits of PORTB as output
DDRC = 0xFF; // Set all bits of PORTC as output
While (1) {
// Toggle PORTB and PORTC using COM instruction
Asm volatile (
“com %0” // Complement PORTB
: “=r” (PORTB)
: “0” (PORTB)
);
Asm volatile (
“com %0” // Complement PORTC
: “=r” (PORTC)
: “0” (PORTC)
);
_delay_ms(500); // Delay for visibility
Return 0;
