Personality and Individual Differences 60 (2014) 41–47

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Personality and Individual Differences

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/paid

Functional theory of human values: Testing its content and structure

hypotheses
Valdiney V. Gouveia a,⇑,1, Taciano L. Milfont b, Valeschka M. Guerra c
a
Department of Psychology, Federal University of Paraíba, Brazil
b
School of Psychology, Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand
c
Department of Psychology, Federal University of Espírito Santo, Brazil

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: A theoretical analysis of the functions values fulfill is described by focusing on two widely accepted value
Received 17 March 2013 functions: values guide actions and express needs. The interplay between these two functions yields a
Received in revised form 4 December 2013 three-by-two framework differentiating values according to their pursued goals (personal, central or
Accepted 9 December 2013
social goals) or their expressed needs (survival or thriving needs). The three-by-two framework results
Available online 29 December 2013
in six subfunctions or basic values (structure hypothesis) assessed with specific marker values forming
the Basic Values Survey (content hypothesis). The present paper tests these theoretical hypotheses in a
Keywords:
large national sample of Brazilian physicians (N = 13,414). The results support both hypotheses and pro-
Human values
Value functions
vide further empirical evidence for the functional theory of values. Discussion centers on the theory as a
Value content refinement of existing value models due to its parsimonious and theoretically-driven approach, and its
Value structure merit as an additional theoretical tool for understanding the structure of the value domain.
Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction integrates models that conceptualize values as guiding actions

and expressing needs. We start by describing the functional theory
Schwartz’s theory of values is an important legacy in social of human values (Gouveia, 1998, 2003, 2013), and then report a
psychology that provides conceptual, methodological, and empiri- study gathering empirical evidence for its appropriateness in a
cal contributions to map a set of universal values (Maio, 2010; large national sample of Brazilian physicians by testing two spe-
Schwartz, 2011). Throughout the years the theory has promoted cific theoretical hypotheses.
multiple configurations of the value domain, including seven (Sch-
wartz & Bilsky, 1987), ten (Schwartz, 1992), eleven (Schwartz,
1994) or nineteen (Schwartz et al., 2012) motivational value types. 2. Primary functions of values
As a result of these multiple (and somewhat conflicting) configura-
tions, some researchers have tried to identify a congruent pool of The functional approach is popular in attitude research (Maio &
dimensions, suggesting between six and eight motivational types Olson, 2000), but research examining the functions that values ful-
(Hinz, Brähler, Schmidt, & Albani, 2005; Perrinjaquet, Furrer, Mar- fill has received less attention (Gouveia, 2013). Nevertheless, two
guerat, Usunier, & Cestre, 2007), whereas others have preferred to primary functions of values can be identified in the psychological
consider only the two bipolar higher-order dimensions of self-tran- literature: values guide actions (Rokeach, 1973; Schwartz, 1992)
scendence/self-enhancement and conservation/openness (e.g., and are cognitive expressions of needs (Inglehart, 1977; Maslow,
Caprara, Alessandri, & Eisenberg, 2012; Strack & Dobewall, 2012). 1954). The recognition of these two value functions has led to
We believe these multiple configurations lack parsimony and the development of the functional theory of human values (Gou-
theoretical focus, and might also hinder scientific advancement veia, 1998, 2003, 2013; Gouveia, Milfont, & Fischer, submitted),
when studies are to be compared or meta-analyzed. In the present which attempts to explain the underlying characteristics of the
article we discuss a parsimonious and theory-driven approach value domain structure.
explaining the functions values fulfill that can be useful in integrat- The parsimonious selection of these value functions is in line
ing previous theoretical value models. In particular, the theory with research showing that the general structure of motivational
systems is consistently subsumed by a two-dimensional structure
⇑ Corresponding author. Address: Department of Psychology, Federal University (Fontaine, Poortinga, Delbeke, & Schwartz, 2008; Grouzet et al.,
of Paraiba, 58.051-900 Joao Pessoa, PB, Brazil. 2005; Ronen, 1994). However, a theoretical and explicit explana-
E-mail address: vvgouveia@gmail.com (V.V. Gouveia). tion of the underlying functional characteristics of this structure
1
URL: http://vvgouveia.net/ has not been explored by the extant literature.

0191-8869/$ - see front matter Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2013.12.012
42 V.V. Gouveia et al. / Personality and Individual Differences 60 (2014) 41–47

The theory posits that the two value functions form distinct of values is the central reference source for the other values in
functional dimensions. The first dimension outlines ‘circle of goals’ the sense that they express general purposes of life corresponding
based on the type of orientation values serve when guiding human to basic needs (e.g., survival) and more general needs (e.g., self-
behaviors (personal, central or social goals). The second dimension actualization). Therefore, the first functional dimension differenti-
outlines ‘level of needs’ based on the type of motivator values serve ates values according to the orientation of their pursued goals
when cognitively representing human needs (survival or thriving (type of orientation: personal, central or social goals).
needs). These value functions most likely arise from evolutionary
conditions associated with human development.
In order to survive in a hostile environment, humans need to: 2.2. Expressing needs
(a) establish bonds with others, while being able to make personal
decisions for one’s own survival, (b) resist threatening group Although the correspondence between values and needs is pro-
demands, and (c) make sense of the multiple meanings present posed (Maslow, 1954; Rokeach, 1973), there is little empirical re-
in social interactions (Baumeister, 2005; Tooby & Cosmides, search on values as based on needs (Calogero, Bardi, & Sutton,
1990). This demand to simultaneously act autonomously and bond 2009). Nevertheless, the literature suggests that all values can be
with a larger group leads to a functional and integrated set of val- classified as materialistic (pragmatic) or humanitarian (idealistic)
ues that guide actions. The second functional dimension underlies based on the needs they express (Braithwaite, Makkai, & Pittelkow,
the expression of needs that would threaten the survival of the 1996; Inglehart, 1977). Materialistic/pragmatic values express ba-
individual, the immediate social group, and the species if not ful- sic biological and social needs such as food and control acquisition,
filled, such as basic biological and social needs (e.g., food, self-con- ensuring the survival of the individual, the immediate social group
trol) as well as needs that become more important once the basic and the species. Humanitarian/idealistic values express needs that
needs are addressed (Baumeister, 2005; Maslow, 1954; Welzel, become more salient when the basic needs have been addressed
Inglehart, & Klingemann, 2003). (Inglehart, 1977; Maslow, 1954), including needs for information,
self-esteem and intellectual and emotional stimulation (Baumei-
ster, 2005).
2.1. Guiding actions Materialistic values imply an orientation toward specific practi-
cal goals and normative rules. Individuals guided by materialistic
Personal and social values are the two terminal value types iden- values tend to think in more biological terms of survival, empha-
tified by Rokeach (1973). Individuals guided by personal values sizing their own existence and the conditions to secure it. Human-
(e.g., an exciting life, inner harmony) are self-centered or intraper- itarian values, in contrast, are based on more abstract principles
sonal in focus, while those guided by social values (e.g., true friend- and ideas. Emphasizing humanitarian values is associated with
ship, a world of peace) are society-centered or interpersonal in creativity and open-mindedness, suggesting less dependence on
focus. Personal and social values lead individuals to emphasize material goods. Compared with materialistic values, humanitarian
respectively themselves or the group as the principal unit of values are not necessarily directed toward concrete goals, and are
survival (Schwartz, 1992). Empirical studies have also identified generally non-specific (Braithwaite et al., 1996; Inglehart, 1977).
values that are neither completely social nor personal, such as Materialistic values express survival needs while humanitarian
personal stability, health, knowledge and maturity (Mueller & values express thriving needs. The second functional dimension
Wornhoff, 1990). Although some scholars refer to this set of values thus differentiates values according to their expressed needs (type
as representing mixed interests (e.g., Schwartz’s universalism and of motivator: survival or thriving needs).
security value types) and in opposition to other values (e.g., Sch-
wartz’s stimulation value type), a different perspective is taken
here. 3. Content and structure of the value functions
According to the functional theory, values that are neither
exclusively personal nor social are located almost exactly between The functional dimensions can be mapped on a three-by-two
personal and social values because they are not restricted to the framework, with three broad pursued goals (personal, central or
dichotomy of self-centered or society-centered interests. This set social goals) and two broad expressed needs (survival or thriving
of values is thus congruent (and not in opposition) with both needs). The interplay between goals and needs yields six specific
personal and social goals. The theory further posits that this set subfunctions or basic values. Figure 1 presents the three-by-two

Values as guides of actions (circle of goals)

Personal goals Central goals Social goals
(the individual by (the general (the individual in
itself) purpose of life) the community)
Thriving needs Excitement Suprapersonal Interactive
Values as expressions of needs

(life as source of Values Values Values

opportunities)2 Emotion Beauty Affectivity
(level of needs)

Pleasure Knowledge Belonging

Sexuality Maturity Support
Survival needs Promotion Existence Normative
(life as source of Values Values Values
threats)1 Power Health Obedience
Prestige Stability Religiosity
Success Survival Tradition

Fig. 1. Facets, dimensions and basic values. Note. (1) Under pressing conditions that impose existential threats. (2) Under permissive conditions that provide existential
security.
 V.V. Gouveia et al. / Personality and Individual Differences 60 (2014) 41–47 43

framework, indicating the specific marker values used to represent common fates and affective experiences of individuals are stressed
each of the six basic values further described below. by these values, representing the needs of belonging, love and
affiliation (Korman, 1974; Maslow, 1954). Individuals guided by
3.1. Existence values interactive values view social contact as a goal in itself.
Since the proposed model is based on primary value functions
The most basic physiological needs and the need for security are discussed in the extant literature, it has similarities with existing
cognitively represented by existence values (Maslow, 1954; Ronen, models, particularly with those of Schwartz (1992) and Inglehart
1994). These values are compatible with personal and social goals (1977). Testing similarities with the Schwartz model, Gouveia
within the expression of survival needs because the principal (2003) analyzed together the ten motivational types and the six
purpose of existence values is to assure the basic conditions for basic values. Despite the numerical difference, the motivational
individual biological and psychological survival. As such, existence types were easily identified according to the functional dimen-
values are the source of reference for promotion and normative sions. For example, promotion values subsumed Schwartz’s
values. achievement and power, normative values incorporated Schwartz’s
conformity and tradition, while existence values (reflecting sur-
3.2. Promotion values vival needs) are underrepresented in Schwartz’s value instrument
and model (see also Gouveia, Milfont, Fischer, & Schultz, 2007).
These values express survival needs and focus on personal The functional theory also resembles the Inglehart (1977) model
goals. Promotion values stem from a personal and materialistic ori- as both make a distinction between materialistic/pragmatic versus
entation and are essential for securing self-esteem (Maslow, 1954; humanitarian/idealistic values. Notwithstanding these similarities,
Ronen, 1994). Although driving personal and material accomplish- the functional theory strikes new conceptual ground by reconciling
ments, such values are also important for successful social interac- distinct value traditions into a single framework. The proposed
tions and institutional functioning (Schwartz, 1992). Individuals theory is thus an improvement or refinement of existing models.
guided by promotion values view hierarchy as an important
demonstration of personal competence. Such individuals also cher-
4. Hypotheses and study overview
ish their own personal benefits and are practical decision-makers.
The present study further evaluates the usefulness of the func-
3.3. Normative values
tional theory of values. Building on the theoretical considerations
just presented, we proposed hypotheses related to the content
These values also express survival needs, but have a focus on so-
and structure of the value functions. The hypotheses are in line
cial goals. Normative values cognitively represent the need for
with the configuration depicted in Figure 1.
security and control as well as the pre-conditions for the satisfac-
First, value items used in several measures (e.g., Braithwaite &
tion of basic needs (Korman, 1974; Maslow, 1954; institutional and
Scott, 1991) were selected as the marker values for the six specific
social demands according to Schwartz, 1992). These values focus
subfunctions or basic values. We hypothesize that the selected 18
on social rules with a materialistic guiding principle, reflecting
marker values will be strong indicators of their correspondent ba-
the importance of preserving one’s culture and conventional
sic values (Hypothesis 1). Second, the horizontal axis in Figure 1
norms. Endorsing these values also implies a vertical orientation
corresponds to the circle of goals (personal, central or social). We
(Gouveia, Albuquerque, Clemente, & Espinosa, 2002), whereby
thus predict that values reflecting central goals will be located in
obedience to authority is important.
the center of the multidimensional space, and located on either
side will be values reflecting personal or social goals (Hypothesis
3.4. Suprapersonal values
2a). Finally, the vertical axis corresponds to the level of needs, with
values expressing survival and thriving needs expected to be pro-
Like existence values suprapersonal values also focus on central
jected into two separate regions in the proposed two-dimensional
goals, but express thriving needs. Suprapersonal values represent
space (Hypothesis 2b).
the higher-order needs of aesthetics, cognition and self-actualiza-
Besides testing these theoretical hypotheses, the present study
tion (Maslow, 1954; Ronen, 1994), emphasizing more abstract
also assesses the psychometric properties of the Basic Values Sur-
ideas over absolute or material goals (Inglehart, 1977) and leading
vey and its appropriateness for measuring the proposed value
to a better understanding and mastery of the physical and social
space in a large national sample of Brazilian physicians. Analysis
realms (Baumeister, 2005). Suprapersonal values are the source
of this data has been reported in another publication (Fischer, Mil-
of reference for excitement and interactive values.
font, & Gouveia, 2011), but the studies have completely distinct
aims. While Fischer and colleagues examined the influence of so-
3.5. Excitement values
cial context on the structure of values at an aggregated level (i.e.,
physicians data grouped within Brazilian states), the present study
These values represent thriving needs with a focus on personal
focuses on individual-level analyses, the particular hypotheses de-
goals. The physiological need for gratification, variety and pleasure
rived from the theory, and the psychometric properties of the Basic
(i.e., hedonism; Maslow, 1954; Ronen, 1994) is cognitively repre-
Values Survey.
sented by excitement values. These values express a more personal
orientation and non-conformity, contributing to a promotion of
change and innovation (Gouveia, 2013). Individuals guided by such 5. Method
values tend not to be orientated toward material goals in the long
run (Guerra, Gouveia, Sousa, Lima, & Freires, 2012). 5.1. Participants and instrument

3.6. Interactive values The participants were 13,414 physicians (70% males) between
the ages of 22 and 85 (M = 40.8, SD = 10.14) from all 26 Brazilian
These values also represent thriving needs, but have a focus on states and the Federal District. Participants completed an online
social goals. Interactive values are essential in regulating, estab- questionnaire investigating Brazilian physicians’ professional
lishing and maintaining one’s interpersonal relationships. The characteristics, which also included the Basic Value Survey (BVS;
44 V.V. Gouveia et al. / Personality and Individual Differences 60 (2014) 41–47

Gouveia, 2003). The BVS is composed of 18 marker values with two in Brazil. Configural equivalence of the six-factor model was
brief descriptions presented after each value (see Supplementary confirmed (CFI = .91, RMSEA = .08). These results support Hypothe-
Online Material). Participants rated each item-value on a 7-point sis 1 and indicate that participants distinguish six basic values as
scale, ranging from 1 (completely unimportant) to 7 (of the utmost measured by the BVS.
importance), considering how important each value was for them
as a guiding principle in their life. 6.2. Structure hypotheses
The alpha coefficients ranged from .53 (interactive) to .60 (nor-
mative) (amean = .56), and the mean inter-item correlations ranged To test the structure hypotheses, we first employed a confirma-
from .28 to .33 (average = .30; see Table S1). Consistent reliability tory Multidimensional Scaling (MDS) with proximity transforma-
indicators were also observed across subsamples from the five tions into z-transformed Euclidean distances with PROXSCAL
geo-social regions in Brazil: North, n = 655; Northeast, n = 2518; algorithm in SPSS. Like a confirmatory factor analysis, a confirma-
Central-West, n = 1397; Southeast, n = 6968; and South, n = 1876 tory MDS compares a theoretical model to the observed data; but
(see Table S2). Low alphas are not uncommon in value measures instead of fixing relations between items and factors the researcher
(e.g., Schwartz, 2005), and these results provide indication of fixes the coordinates of the observed data in the multidimensional
acceptable internal consistency and homogeneity for research pur- space based on the theoretical model.
poses on values. All six basic values were positively correlated, with The confirmatory MDS was performed by specifying the theo-
correlations ranging from .12 to .47 (average = .35; see Table S1). retical structure shown in Figure 1, and then comparing to the fit
of the observed structure. A two-dimensional structure was im-
5.2. Procedure posed in line with the theory and because it best represents the
dimensionality of the value space (Fontaine et al., 2008). The
The questionnaire was available on the internet for six months. following parameters were specified for the first dimension:
Participants had to enter their physician’s register number and excitement [1.0], promotion [1.0], existence [0.0], suprapersonal
birth date to access the questionnaire. Only registered physicians [0.0], interactive [ 1.0], and normative [ 1.0]. For the second
could take part in the study and participants could only complete dimension the following parameters were specified: excitement
the questionnaire once. Participants’ identification was later dis- [0.5], promotion [ 0.5], existence [ 1.0], suprapersonal [1.0],
carded to preserve their anonymity. The average completion time interactive [0.5], and normative [ 0.5]. Tucker’s coefficient of con-
was 15 min. gruence (also known as Tucker’s phi) was used as a measure of
model fit, with values higher than .90 indicating good fit (van de
Vijver & Leung, 1997).
6. Results
Figure 2a and 2b respectively show the results of the uncon-
strained and confirmatory MDS. The unconstrained solution clearly
6.1. Content hypothesis
shows that the personal-central-social distinction was more well-
defined than the survival-thriving distinction. Nevertheless, the
To test the content hypothesis, confirmatory factor analyses
Tucker’s phi of .98 indicates that forcing the location of the marker
were performed using the covariance matrix among the 18 values
values to fit the theoretical structure provides good fit.
as input and maximum likelihood estimation procedures in LISREL.
We then ran a generalized procrustes analysis in the GPA soft-
Standard goodness-of-fit statistics were used to assess model fit
ware (Commandeur, 1991) and Orthosim (Barrett, 2005) to com-
and to compare competing models. We tested four alternative
pare the coordinates of the unconstrained and confirmatory MDS
models against our hypothesized six-factor model. Since the six
configurations (see Table S3), with values close to .90 or higher
basic values were all positively interrelated, we first tested an
indicating acceptable fit. The total fit between the configurations
undifferentiated one-factor latent model with all items. We then
was .81. In line with Figure 2a, the double-scaled Euclidean
fitted oblique latent models. The level of needs might be a parsi-
similarity coefficient showed that the first dimension had a better
monious explanation of the value structure; hence we tested a
congruence match (.90) than the second dimension (.55). These re-
correlated two-factor latent model differentiating values express-
sults confirm Hypothesis 2a: central values were located between
ing survival versus thriving needs. Third, a correlated three-factor
personal and social values. Less support was observed for Hypoth-
latent model was tested by differentiating personal, central and so-
esis 2b suggesting that survival and thriving values are separated
cial values. Finally, we proposed that central values form the core
into two regions.
of the values structure; therefore, we tested a correlated five-factor
latent model combining existence and suprapersonal values.
As can be seen in Table 1 and Figure S1, the six-factor model 7. Discussion
without any constraint or change to improve fit was statistically
better fitting than other theory-based alternatives. We also cross- The present article describes a theoretical model that focuses on
validated the six-factor model across the five geo-social regions the functions human values fulfill. Two primary value functions

Table 1
Fit indices for alternative models.

Model v2 (df) GFI CFI RMSEA (CI90%) SRMR ECVI CAIC Dv2 (df)
One-factor 19702.25 (135) .86 .84 .10 (.10–.11) .074 1.47 20080.40 –
Two-factor 19600.62 (134) .86 .85 .10 (.10–.11) .074 1.47 19989.27 101.63* (1)
Three-factor 14835.71 (132) .89 .88 .091 (.090–.092) .066 1.11 15245.37 4764.91* (2)
Five-factor 13360.51 (125) .90 .89 .089 (.088–.090) .066 1.00 13843.70 1475.20* (7)
Six-factor 13170.15 (120) .90 .90 .090 (.089–.091) .064 .99 13705.86 190.36* (5)

Note. N = 13,414. One-factor model: all values combined. Two-factor model: values expressing survival versus thriving needs. Three-factor model: values focusing on social
versus central versus personal goals. Five-factor model: central values combined. v2 = chi-square, df = degrees of freedom, GFI = goodness-of-fit index, CFI = comparative fit
index, RMSEA = root-mean-square error of approximation, CI90% = 90% confidence interval, SRMR = standardized root mean square residual, ECVI = expected cross-validation
index, CAIC = consistent Akaike information criterion.
*
p < .001.
 V.V. Gouveia et al. / Personality and Individual Differences 60 (2014) 41–47 45

Fig. 2. Spatial representation of the marker values from (a) unrestricted and (b) confirmatory multidimensional scaling. Note. Triangles refer to social values, circles to central
values and squares to personal values. Black symbols refer to survival values and white symbols refer to thriving values.

were selected – values guide actions and express needs – and a promotion, normative, suprapersonal, excitement, and interactive)
three-by-two framework was proposed based on their interplay. and marker values were selected from the values literature as
The three-by-two framework yields six basic values (existence, observed indicators. Theoretical hypotheses were supported in a
46 V.V. Gouveia et al. / Personality and Individual Differences 60 (2014) 41–47

large national Brazilian sample of physicians. The theory has been Preparation of this manuscript was also partially supported by a
previously tested with student populations (Gouveia, Milfont, & Marsden Fast Start Grant from The Royal Society of New Zealand
Fischer, submitted) and outside Brazil (Ardila, Gouveia, & Medei- (Te Putea Rangahau a Marsden) awarded to Taciano L. Milfont.
ros, 2012; Gouveia et al., 2010), but the present study provides Valdiney V. Gouveia and Taciano L. Milfont contributed equally
the first empirical test of the three-by-two framework in a national to the writing of this article. The authors thank Christian Welzel
sample constituted exclusively by non-students. and Paul Barrett for their comments and encouragements during
The prediction that the 18 marker values would be good indica- the preparation of this manuscript. The authors also thank Ronald
tors of their corresponding theoretical basic values was confirmed. Fischer for his contribution in the development of the functional
This finding provides support for the Basic Values Survey as a psy- theory of human values and his comments on an earlier draft of
chometrically-sound measure for assessing the proposed theoreti- this manuscript.
cal model. Instead of having an extensive list of values and then
creating value dimensions ex post facto based on empirical data,
Appendix A. Supplementary data
the proposed framework was theoretically driven and determined
beforehand, and only then were the specific marker values selected
Supplementary data associated with this article can be found, in
to represent the proposed dimensions.
the online version, at http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2013.12.012.
Besides providing a more parsimonious and theory-driven ap-
proach, this procedure also means that researchers could select
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