Artificial Intelligence (AI) Tutorial

The Artificial Intelligence tutorial provides an introduction to AI which will

help you to understand the concepts behind Artificial Intelligence. In this
tutorial, we have also discussed various popular topics such as History of AI,
applications of AI, deep learning, machine learning, natural language
processing, Reinforcement learning, Q-learning, Intelligent agents, Various
search algorithms, etc.

Our AI tutorial is prepared from an elementary level so you can easily

understand the complete tutorial from basic concepts to the high-level
concepts.

What is Artificial Intelligence (AI)?

In today's world, technology is growing very fast, and we are getting in touch
with different new technologies day by day.

Here, one of the booming technologies of computer science is Artificial

Intelligence which is ready to create a new revolution in the world by making
intelligent machines.The Artificial Intelligence is now all around us. It is
currently working with a variety of subfields, ranging from general to
specific, such as self-driving cars, playing chess, proving theorems, playing
music, Painting, etc.
AI is one of the fascinating and universal fields of Computer science which
has a great scope in future. AI holds a tendency to cause a machine to work
as a human.

Artificial Intelligence is composed of two words Artificial and Intelligence,

where Artificial defines "man-made," and intelligence defines "thinking
power", hence AI means "a man-made thinking power."

So, we can define AI as:

"It is a branch of computer science by which we can create intelligent machines which can
behave like a human, think like humans, and able to make decisions."

Artificial Intelligence exists when a machine can have human based skills
such as learning, reasoning, and solving problems

With Artificial Intelligence you do not need to preprogram a machine to do

some work, despite that you can create a machine with programmed
algorithms which can work with own intelligence, and that is the
awesomeness of AI.
It is believed that AI is not a new technology, and some people says that as
per Greek myth, there were Mechanical men in early days which can work
and behave like humans.

Why Artificial Intelligence?

Before Learning about Artificial Intelligence, we should know that what is the
importance of AI and why should we learn it. Following are some main
reasons to learn about AI:

o With the help of AI, you can create such software or devices which can
solve real-world problems very easily and with accuracy such as health
issues, marketing, traffic issues, etc.
o With the help of AI, you can create your personal virtual Assistant, such
as Cortana, Google Assistant, Siri, etc.
o With the help of AI, you can build such Robots which can work in an
environment where survival of humans can be at risk.
o AI opens a path for other new technologies, new devices, and new
Opportunities.

Goals of Artificial Intelligence

Following are the main goals of Artificial Intelligence:

1. Replicate human intelligence

2. Solve Knowledge-intensive tasks
3. An intelligent connection of perception and action
4. Building a machine which can perform tasks that requires human
intelligence such as:
o Proving a theorem
o Playing chess
o Plan some surgical operation
o Driving a car in traffic
5. Creating some system which can exhibit intelligent behavior, learn new
things by itself, demonstrate, explain, and can advise to its user.
History of AI
o Throughout history, people have been intrigued by the idea of making
non-living things smart. In ancient times, Greek stories mentioned
gods creating clever machines, and in Egypt, engineers made statues
move. Thinkers like Aristotle and Ramon Llull laid the groundwork
for AI by describing how human thinking works using symbols.
o In the late 1800s and early 1900s, modern computing started to take
shape. Charles Babbage and Ada Lovelace designed machines that
could be programmed in the 1830s. In the 1940s, John Von Neumann
came up with the idea of storing computer programs. At the same
time, Warren McCulloch and Walter Pitts started building the basics of
neural networks.
o The 1950s brought us modern computers, letting scientists dig into
machine intelligence. Alan Turing's Turing test became a big deal in
computer smarts. The term "artificial intelligence" was first used
in a 1956 Dartmouth College meeting, where they introduced the
first AI program, the Logic Theorist.
o The following years had good times and bad times for AI, called "AI
Winters." In the 1970s and 1980s, we hit limits with computer power
and complexity. But in the late 1990s, things got exciting again.
Computers were faster, and there was more data. IBM's Deep
Blue beating chess champion Garry Kasparov in 1997 was a big
moment.
o The 2000s started a new era with machine learning, language
processing, and computer vision. This led to cool new products and
services. The 2010s saw AI take off with things like voice assistants
and self-driving cars. Generative AI, which makes creative stuff, also
started getting big.
o In the 2020s, generative AI like ChatGPT-3 and Google's
Bard grabbed everyone's attention. These models can create all sorts
of new things when you give them a prompt, like essays or art. But
 remember, this tech is still new, and there are things to fix, like making
sure it doesn't make things up.

What Comprises to Artificial Intelligence?

Artificial Intelligence is not just a part of computer science even it's so vast
and requires lots of other factors which can contribute to it. To create the AI
first we should know that how intelligence is composed, so the Intelligence is
an intangible part of our brain which is a combination of Reasoning,
learning, problem-solving perception, language understanding, etc.

To achieve the above factors for a machine or software Artificial Intelligence

requires the following discipline:

o Mathematics
o Biology
o Psychology
o Sociology
o Computer Science
o Neurons Study
o Statistics
Types of Artificial Intelligence
Artificial Intelligence can be categorized in several ways, primarily based on
two main criteria: capabilities and functionality.

AI Type 1: Based on Capabilities

1. Weak AI or Narrow AI: Narrow AI, also known as Weak AI, is like a
specialist in the world of Artificial Intelligence. Imagine it as a virtual
expert dedicated to performing one specific task with intelligence. For
example, think of Apple's Siri. It's pretty smart when it comes to voice
commands and answering questions, but it doesn't understand or do
much beyond that. Narrow AI operates within strict limits, and if you
ask it to step outside its comfort zone, it might not perform as
expected. This type of AI is everywhere in today's world, from self-
driving cars to image recognition on your smartphone.BM's Watson is
 another example of Narrow AI. It's a supercomputer that combines
Expert Systems, Machine Learning, and Natural Language Processing,
but it's still a specialist. It's excellent at crunching data and providing
insights but doesn't venture far beyond its defined tasks.
2. General AI: General AI, often referred to as Strong AI, is like the holy
grail of artificial intelligence. Picture it as a system that could do any
intellectual task with the efficiency of a human. General AI aims to
create machines that think and learn like humans, but here's the
catch: there's no such system in existence yet. Researchers worldwide
are working diligently to make it a reality, but it's a complex journey
that will require significant time and effort.
3. Super AI: Super AI takes AI to another level entirely. It's the pinnacle
of machine intelligence, where machines surpass human capabilities in
every cognitive aspect. These machines can think, reason, solve
puzzles, make judgments, plan, learn, and communicate
independently. However, it's important to note that Super AI is
currently a hypothetical concept. Achieving such a level of artificial
intelligence would be nothing short of revolutionary, and it's a
challenge that's still on the horizon.

AI Type 2: Based on Functionality

1. Reactive Machines: Reactive Machines represent the most basic

form of Artificial Intelligence. These machines live in the present
moment and don't have memories or past experiences to guide their
actions. They focus solely on the current scenario and respond with the
best possible action based on their programming. An example of a
reactive machine is IBM's Deep Blue, the chess-playing computer, and
Google's AlphaGo, which excels at the ancient game of Go.
2. Limited Memory: Limited Memory machines can remember some
past experiences or data but only for a short period. They use this
stored information to make decisions and navigate situations. A great
example of this type of AI is seen in self-driving cars. These vehicles
 store recent data like the speed of nearby cars, distances, and speed
limits to safely navigate the road.
3. Theory of Mind: Theory of Mind AI is still in the realm of research and
development. These AI systems aim to understand human emotions
and beliefs and engage in social interactions much like humans. While
this type of AI hasn't fully materialized yet, researchers are making
significant strides toward creating machines that can understand and
interact with humans on a deeper, more emotional level.
4. Self-Awareness: Self-Awareness AI is the future frontier of Artificial
Intelligence. These machines will be extraordinarily intelligent,
possessing their own consciousness, emotions, and self-awareness.
They'll be smarter than the human mind itself. However, it's crucial to
note that Self-Awareness AI remains a hypothetical concept and does
not yet exist in reality. Achieving this level of AI would be a
monumental leap in technology and understanding.

Advantages of Artificial Intelligence

Following are some main advantages of Artificial Intelligence:

o High Accuracy with less errors: AI machines or systems are prone

to less errors and high accuracy as it takes decisions as per pre-
experience or information.
o High-Speed: AI systems can be of very high-speed and fast-decision
making, because of that AI systems can beat a chess champion in the
Chess game.
o High reliability: AI machines are highly reliable and can perform the
same action multiple times with high accuracy.
o Useful for risky areas: AI machines can be helpful in situations such
as defusing a bomb, exploring the ocean floor, where to employ a
human can be risky.
o Digital Assistant: AI can be very useful to provide digital assistant to
the users such as AI technology is currently used by various E-
 commerce websites to show the products as per customer
requirement.
o Useful as a public utility: AI can be very useful for public utilities
such as a self-driving car which can make our journey safer and hassle-
free, facial recognition for security purpose, Natural language
processing to communicate with the human in human-language, etc.
o Enhanced Security: AI can be very helpful in enhancing security, as
It can detect and respond to cyber threats in real time, helping
companies protect their data and systems.
o Aid in Research: AI is very helpful in the research field as it assists
researchers by processing and analyzing large datasets, accelerating
discoveries in fields such as astronomy, genomics, and materials
science.

Disadvantages of Artificial Intelligence

Every technology has some disadvantages, and the same goes for Artificial
intelligence. Being so advantageous technology still, it has some
disadvantages which we need to keep in our mind while creating an AI
system. Following are the disadvantages of AI:

o High Cost: The hardware and software requirement of AI is very costly

as it requires lots of maintenance to meet current world requirements.
o Can't think out of the box: Even we are making smarter machines
with AI, but still they cannot work out of the box, as the robot will only
do that work for which they are trained, or programmed.
o No feelings and emotions: AI machines can be an outstanding
performer, but still it does not have the feeling so it cannot make any
kind of emotional attachment with human, and may sometime be
harmful for users if the proper care is not taken.
o Increase dependency on machines: With the increment of
technology, people are getting more dependent on devices and hence
they are losing their mental capabilities.
o No Original Creativity: As humans are so creative and can imagine
some new ideas but still AI machines cannot beat this power of human
intelligence and cannot be creative and imaginative.
o Complexity: Making and keeping AI systems can be very
complicated and need a lot of knowledge. This can make it hard
for some groups or people to use them.
o Job Concerns: As AI gets better, it might take away not just
basic jobs but also some skilled ones. This worries people about
losing jobs in different fields.

Challenges of AI
Artificial Intelligence offers incredible advantages, but it also presents
some challenges that need to be addressed:

o Doing the Right Thing: AI should make the right choices, but
sometimes it doesn't. It can make mistakes or do things that
aren't fair. We need to teach AI to be better at making good
choices.
o Government and AI: Sometimes, governments use AI to keep
an eye on people. This can be a problem for our freedom. We
need to make sure they use AI in a good way.
o Bias in AI: AI can sometimes be a bit unfair, especially when it
comes to recognizing people's faces. This can cause problems,
especially for people who aren't like the majority.
o AI and Social Media: What you see on social media is often
decided by AI. But sometimes, AI shows things that aren't true or
are kind of mean. We need to make sure AI shows the right stuff.
o Legal and Regulatory Challenges: The rapid evolution of AI
has outpaced the development of comprehensive laws and
regulations, leading to uncertainty about issues like liability and
responsibility.

AI Tools and Services

AI tools and services are advancing quickly, and this progress can be
linked back to a significant moment in 2012 when the AlexNet neural
network came onto the scene. This marked the start of a new era for
high-performance AI, thanks to the use of GPUs and massive data sets.
The big shift was the ability to train neural networks using huge
amounts of data on multiple GPU cores simultaneously, making it a
more scalable process.

o Transformers: Google found a better way to train AI using lots

of regular computers with special chips called GPUs. This
discovery made transformers possible. Transformers help AI
learn from data that doesn't have labels, like teaching a
computer to understand language.
o Hardware Improvements: Companies like Nvidia improved the
inner workings of these GPUs. They made them really good at
handling the math AI needs to do. This teamwork between better
hardware, smarter AI software, and computer data centers made
AI a million times better! Nvidia is also working with companies
that offer cloud computing to make it easier for others to use this
powerful AI.
o GPTs: Before, if a company wanted to use AI, they had to start
from scratch, which was expensive and time-consuming. Now,
companies like OpenAI, Nvidia, Microsoft, and Google offer pre-
trained AI models. These models can be fine-tuned for specific
tasks at a lower cost and with less effort. It's like buying a ready-
made cake and adding your own frosting instead of baking the
whole cake from scratch. This helps companies use AI faster and
with less risk.
o AI in the Cloud: Using AI can be tricky because it needs lots of
data work. Big cloud companies like AWS, Google, Microsoft,
IBM, and Oracle are making it easier. They're offering AI
services that help with the hard parts, like getting data ready,
building AI models, and putting them into apps.
 o Advanced AI for Everyone: Some groups are making really
smart AI models and sharing them. OpenAI, for example, has
models that are good at chatting, understanding language,
making images, and writing code. Nvidia is another, and they're
not tied to one cloud company. Many others are making special
AI models for different jobs and industries. It's like having a
library of powerful tools for lots of different tasks.

Prerequisite
Before learning about Artificial Intelligence, you must have the
fundamental knowledge of following so that you can understand the
concepts easily:

o Any computer language such as C, C++, Java, Python, etc.

(knowledge of Python will be an advantage)
o Knowledge of essential Mathematics such as derivatives,
probability theory, etc.

Audience
Our AI tutorial is designed specifically for beginners and also included
some high-level concepts for professionals.

Problems
We assure you that you will not find any difficulty while learning our AI
tutorial. But if there any mistake, kindly post the problem in the
contact form.

Applications of AI
Artificial Intelligence has various applications in today's society. It is
becoming essential for today's time because it can solve complex problems
with an efficient way in multiple industries, such as Healthcare,
entertainment, finance, education, etc. AI is making our daily life more
comfortable and fast.
Following are some sectors which have the application of Artificial
Intelligence:

1. AI in Astronomy

o Automated Celestial Object Identification: AI systems can

automatically identify and classify celestial objects in astronomical
images, aiding in discovering new stars, galaxies, and other cosmic
phenomena. In simple words, AI can spot and sort out things in space
by looking at pictures. It's like having a cosmic detective that finds new
stars, galaxies, and other mysterious objects without human help.
o Exoplanet Hunting: AI helps astronomers find planets outside our
solar system by looking at lots of data. It can notice tiny changes in the
light from stars, which tell us there might be planets around them,
such as those caused by exoplanet transits.
 o Analyzing Space Information: AI plays a crucial role in the study of
space. It assists scientists by carefully examining vast amounts of
complex data gathered from space observations. This helps
astronomers uncover sophisticated patterns, unusual phenomena, and
connections that might be otherwise very difficult to notice.
Essentially, AI acts as a dedicated assistant, sifting through the cosmic
data haystack to find the valuable needles of knowledge.
o Watching Space Events in Real-time: AI-powered tools can keep a
constant eye on the night sky, looking out for sudden happenings like
exploding stars (supernovae) or bursts of powerful gamma rays. This
allows scientists to quickly study these events in more detail when
they occur.
o Making Telescopes Smarter: AI is like a brain for telescopes. It
helps them work better by changing their settings on the fly. For
example, if the weather gets cloudy or if scientists want to study
something specific in space, AI can adjust the telescope to get the best
results. It's like having a telescope that can think and adapt to the
situation.

2. AI in Healthcare
o Helping Doctors See Inside the Body Better: AI is like a super
helper for doctors when they look at pictures of the inside of a patient's
body, like X-rays or MRIs. It uses smart algorithms to find things like
problems, tumors, or broken bones very accurately. This means
doctors can figure out what's going on faster and more accurately,
which is great for patients and for better diagnosis.
o Detecting Health Problems Early: AI acts as a health detective. It
looks at your health information to find out if you might get certain
diseases in the future. When it sees a high risk, doctors can step in
early to help you stay healthy. This is really important for conditions
like diabetes and heart problems because catching them at this time
means better treatment and less trouble for the patient.
o Developing Medications Quickly and Cost-Effectively: AI acts like
a super scientist in the lab. It uses certain algorithms to predict how
different chemicals can fight diseases. This helps us make new
medicines much quicker and at a low cost. So people can get the
treatments they need sooner, and it doesn't cost as much money to
manufacture them.
 o Personalized Treatment Plans: AI looks at your health information,
like your genes, what happened to you before, and how you've
responded to treatments. Then, it makes a special plan just for you.
This means your treatment works better and doesn't give you as many
problems. It's like having a personalized health coach, which helps in
avoiding complications caused by improperly prescribed medicine.
o Managing Hospital Functions and Resources: AI acts like a
manager for hospitals. It helps with things like when patients come in,
where to put resources like doctors and supplies, and how to make
sure everything runs well. It can even guess how many patients might
come in ahead of time, so hospitals use their staff and resources in the
best way possible.

3. AI in Gaming

o Smart Game Characters: AI is like the brains behind game

characters that aren't controlled by players. They make these
characters, called NPCs, act more like real people or clever enemies.
They can learn from what players do and change their behavior, which
makes games more exciting and lifelike. Imagine playing a game
 where the bad guys learn and adapt to your moves - that's what AI
does.
o Creating Game Worlds with AI: AI can make parts of video games
all on its own. It can create levels, maps, and places to explore without
people having to make them by hand. This means games can have
bigger and more interesting worlds because AI does a lot of the work,
kind of like a game world builder. It helps game developers, too.
o Making Games Look and Feel Real: AI helps to make games look
and act more like the real world. They create graphics that look just
like the things we see, and they make how things move in games feel
realistic, like in real life. They even guess what players might do next
so the game looks smooth and natural.

4. AI in Finance

o Identifying and Prevention of Fraud: AI keeps an eye on bank

transactions all the time. They act like super detectives who can spot
strange things happening with money, like someone using a credit
card in a weird way. When they see something fishy, they raise the
alarm and help the bank stop bad people from stealing money. This
 happens really fast, without needing people to check every
transaction.
o Automated Trading: AI helps a skilled trader who works
automatically. It uses various algorithms to swiftly buy and sell stocks
while analyzing all the market information. This boosts trading
strategies, making investments more efficient and profitable.
o Risk Control: AI helps in examining lots of data to check how risky
something is, like giving out loans or making investments. It looks at
things like whether someone can pay back a loan or how safe an
investment is. This helps banks and investment firms make smarter
choices so they don't lose money and can help others save and grow
their money.

5. AI in Data Security

o Anamoly Detection: AI works as a digital detective. It looks at big

piles of data and watches for anything strange or out of the ordinary,
like someone sneaking into a digital vault or trying to steal secrets.
When it sees something fishy, it raises the alarm, helping to keep
important data safe from cyber-attacks.
 o Predicting Threats: AI looks at past troubles and keeps an eye on
new dangers that are popping up. By doing this, it can predict what
bad things might happen in the future, like a security breach or a
cyberattack. This way, companies can get ready in advance to protect
their important data, sort of like putting up a strong fortress before any
attack happens.
o Automated Safety Response: AI acts like a digital guardian that can
respond when there's trouble. If it sees something bad happening, like
a cyberattack, it can automatically take action. It might isolate the part
that's under attack. This way, it keeps your important stuff safe in the
digital world.

6. AI in Social Media

o Smart Suggestions: AI helps as a guide on social media. It watches

what you like and what you do, and then it suggests things you might
enjoy, like posts, videos, or ads. It acts as someone who knows your
tastes and shows you stuff you're really into, making your social media
experience more enjoyable and personalized.
o Virtual Assistants and Chatbots: AI chatbots and virtual assistants
act as digital helpers on social media. They're quick to respond and
 can talk to you just like a real person. They answer your questions,
share information, and even help with problems. It's like having an
assistant available 24/7, making your social media experience
smoother and more helpful.
o Sentiment Analysis: AI can figure out how people feel on social
media. It looks at what they say in comments and posts and decides if
it's a happy, sad, or neutral kind of message. This helps companies
understand what people think so they can react in the right way. It's
like having a mood gauge for the internet so businesses can make
their customers happier.
o Trend Analysis: AI keeps track of all the chats and what's popular
right now. This helps companies and regular folks understand what
everyone's thinking and talking about. It acts as a social media news
reporter that keeps customers in the loop about what's hot and what
people are buzzing about.

7. AI in Travel & Transport

o Optimization of Route: AI plays a crucial role in optimizing travel

routes, be it for parcel deliveries, public transportation, or personal
trips. It efficiently calculates the swiftest and most economical paths
from one point to another point, resulting in reduced travel time,
minimized fuel consumption, and cost savings. Essentially, it serves as
a pocket-sized travel advisor, enhancing the speed and budget-
friendliness of your journeys.
o Smart Security Screening: AI helps in keeping traveling safely. It
uses special skills to scan bags and people quickly. It can spot things
that might be dangerous and make security checks faster and
smoother. This means you can fly knowing that the airport is working
hard to keep you safe without making your travel a hassle.
o Chatbots for Travel Support: AI chatbots are like digital travel
helpers. These chatbots are capable of aiding you in various tasks such
as reserving tickets, suggesting interesting destinations to explore,
and providing responses to your inquiries, much like an affable travel
 consultant. This elevates the convenience and pleasure of your travel
adventures, as you can access assistance whenever it's required, even
during late-night hours.
o AI Prevents Breakdowns: AI works like a fortune teller for machines
like cars, planes, and roads. It predicts when they might get sick and
need fixing. This way, we can fix them before they break down and
cause problems. It keeps everything running smoothly, making travel
safer and saving a lot of time and money.

8. AI in Automotive Industry

o Self-Driving Cars: AI is like the brain of self-driving cars. It looks at

what's happening around the car using various sensors and decides
what the car should do, like turning or stopping. It's like having a
super-smart driver that doesn't need a person. This makes cars drive
on their own, making travel more convenient and safer because there's
no need for a human to steer.
o Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS): AI adds extra
smarts to your car to keep you safe. It possesses the capability to
autonomously adjust your vehicle's speed while on the highway, assist
in maintaining your lane, and swiftly engage the brakes when
detecting potential hazards. These intelligent functionalities function
 akin to a co-pilot, ensuring your safety by preventing accidents and
ensuring your safe arrival at your intended destination.
o Streamlining Production Processes: AI watches over machines,
checks if they're healthy, and makes sure they don't break. It also
helps with ordering materials and makes sure everything is made just
right. This makes things faster, cheaper, and better quality, like having
a super factory manager.
o Voice Recognition: AI-driven voice recognition systems allow drivers
to control various functions in their vehicles, such as navigation, music,
and communication, using natural language.

9. AI in Robotics:

o Self-Moving Robots: AI makes robots really smart at moving around

on their own. It's like giving them a built-in GPS and a clever brain.
They can figure out where to go and how to get there without bumping
into things or needing a person to show them the way. This helps them
do tasks like delivering packages or exploring places on their own,
making them super independent.
o Object Recognition and Manipulation: AI gives robots sharp eyes
and clever hands. It helps them see objects clearly and then pick them
up and move them just right. This is super useful, especially in places
like warehouses, where they can do things like sorting and packing
items accurately.
o Collaboration of Humans and Robots: AI makes it possible for
robots to be great team players with people. They can work alongside
humans, helping out and learning from them. If a person does
something, the robot can understand and follow their lead. This makes
workplaces safer and more efficient, like having a trusty robot
colleague who understands and supports you.

10. AI in Entertainment
 o Recommendation of Content: AI looks at what customers have liked
before, such as movies or music, and suggests new things that they
might enjoy. It's like having a personal entertainment guide, making
their experience more enjoyable by offering just what they like.
o AI as a Creative Assistant: AI acts as a creative sidekick for artists
and creators. It can make music, art, and videos or help improve what
they create. It's like having a helper that speeds up the creative
process, making it easier to bring new ideas to life. This way, artists
can focus more on their vision, and AI handles the technical bits.
o Live Event and Performance Enhancements: AI makes live events
and performances even cooler. It can translate what people are saying
in real time, add cool effects that blend with what's happening, and
even predict what the audience will like. This makes shows and events
more exciting and enjoyable for everyone there. It's like having a
magic touch that brings performances to life in new and amazing ways.

11. AI in Agriculture
o Crop Observation and Control: AI, with the help of various sensors,
acts as a guardian for crops on the farm. It keeps an eye on them,
making sure they're healthy and growing well. It tells farmers when it's
the best time to plant, water, and harvest the most crops. It's like
having a farm expert who ensures the fields are super productive so
farmers can get the most out of their hard work.
o Smart Farming for Efficiency: AI makes farming super efficient. It
helps farmers use just the right amount of things like fertilizer and
pesticides, not too much and not too little. This means there's less
waste, and the crops grow better. It's like having a precise chef in the
field, making sure everything is just perfect for the plants to thrive and
produce lots of food.
o Automated Farming: AI controls a number of machines like tractors
and drones. These machines can plant seeds, remove weeds, and
spray stuff on crops all by themselves. They do it super well and
exactly as needed, like having expert farmers who never get tired and
work perfectly, making farming easier and more efficient.
o Monitoring Livestock: AI uses special sensors and smart data
analysis to make sure they're healthy and happy. If anything is wrong,
it alerts the farmer. This way, the animals are well taken care of, and
 the farm can run smoothly. It's like having a watchful friend for the
animals, making sure they're okay and the farm works better.

12. AI in E-commerce

o Personalized Product Suggestions: AI looks at what you've looked

at and bought before and suggests things you might really like. It's like
having a personal shopper who knows your style, making your online
shopping more fun and helping you discover new things you might
want to buy. Plus, it's great for the store because it helps them sell
more, and as a customer, it saves your time.
o Managing Inventory: AI takes care of a store's shelves. It predicts
how much of each product people will buy and automatically orders
more when needed. In this manner, there exists an optimal balance of
products, preventing excessive stock that ties up funds while also
ensuring an adequate supply to prevent customers from leaving
without making a purchase.
o Dynamic Pricing: Artificial intelligence dynamically adjusts pricing
according to demand, market competition, and inventory levels,
ensuring customers receive optimal value while enhancing the store's
profitability.

13. AI in education:
 o Education Content Creation: AI acts as a teaching assistant for
educators. It helps them make things like quizzes, lesson plans, and
study materials. This makes teaching easier and better because
educators have more time for students, and the materials are top-
notch. It's like having a super-efficient helper who does the paperwork,
leaving teachers more time to inspire students.
o Virtual Learning Assistants: AI is there to answer questions, explain
things, and offer help whenever students need it, day or night. This
makes learning easier and more fun because students have someone
to turn to whenever they're stuck. It also takes some pressure off
teachers because AI can handle common questions, leaving more time
for personalized teaching.
o Automated Assessment and Instant Feedback: AI acts like a
super-speedy homework checker. It looks at your assignments and
tests and gives you grades and feedback right away. This aids in
gauging your progress and pinpointing areas for potential
enhancement. Furthermore, it alleviates some of your teacher's
grading responsibilities, allowing them to dedicate more time to
teaching rather than paper evaluation.
o Customized Learning Routes: AI figures out what you're good at
and where you might need extra help. Then, it gives you the right stuff
to learn and the best way to learn it. This makes learning easier and
more fun.

Conclusion
The applications of AI are vast and diverse, touching nearly every aspect of
our lives. From healthcare to finance, astronomy to gaming, and
transportation to entertainment, AI is reshaping industries and propelling us
into a future where the possibilities seem limitless. As AI continues to
advance, its impact on society is poised to grow, promising increased
efficiency, better decision-making, and innovative solutions to some of our
most pressing challenges. Embracing and responsibly harnessing the power
of AI will be key to unlocking its full potential and ensuring a brighter future
for all.
Types of Artificial Intelligence:
Artificial Intelligence can be divided in various types, there are mainly two
types of main categorization which are based on capabilities and based on
functionally of AI. Following is flow diagram which explain the types of AI.

AI type-1: Based on Capabilities

1. Weak AI or Narrow AI:

o Narrow AI is a type of AI which is able to perform a dedicated task with

intelligence.The most common and currently available AI is Narrow AI
in the world of Artificial Intelligence.
o Narrow AI cannot perform beyond its field or limitations, as it is only
trained for one specific task. Hence it is also termed as weak AI.
Narrow AI can fail in unpredictable ways if it goes beyond its limits.
o Apple Siriis a good example of Narrow AI, but it operates with a limited
pre-defined range of functions.
o IBM's Watson supercomputer also comes under Narrow AI, as it uses
an Expert system approach combined with Machine learning and
natural language processing.
 o Some Examples of Narrow AI are playing chess, purchasing
suggestions on e-commerce site, self-driving cars, speech recognition,
and image recognition.

2. General AI:

o General AI is a type of intelligence which could perform any intellectual

task with efficiency like a human.
o The idea behind the general AI to make such a system which could be
smarter and think like a human by its own.
o Currently, there is no such system exist which could come under
general AI and can perform any task as perfect as a human.
o The worldwide researchers are now focused on developing machines
with General AI.
o As systems with general AI are still under research, and it will take lots
of efforts and time to develop such systems.

3. Super AI:

o Super AI is a level of Intelligence of Systems at which machines could

surpass human intelligence, and can perform any task better than
human with cognitive properties. It is an outcome of general AI.
o Some key characteristics of strong AI include capability include the
ability to think, to reason,solve the puzzle, make judgments, plan,
learn, and communicate by its own.
o Super AI is still a hypothetical concept of Artificial Intelligence.
Development of such systems in real is still world changing task.
Artificial Intelligence type-2: Based on functionality
1. Reactive Machines

o Purely reactive machines are the most basic types of Artificial

Intelligence.
o Such AI systems do not store memories or past experiences for future
actions.
o These machines only focus on current scenarios and react on it as per
possible best action.
o IBM's Deep Blue system is an example of reactive machines.
o Google's AlphaGo is also an example of reactive machines.

2. Limited Memory

o Limited memory machines can store past experiences or some data for
a short period of time.
o These machines can use stored data for a limited time period only.
o Self-driving cars are one of the best examples of Limited Memory
systems. These cars can store recent speed of nearby cars, the
distance of other cars, speed limit, and other information to navigate
the road.
3. Theory of Mind

o Theory of Mind AI should understand the human emotions, people,

beliefs, and be able to interact socially like humans.
o This type of AI machines are still not developed, but researchers are
making lots of efforts and improvement for developing such AI
machines.

4. Self-Awareness

o Self-awareness AI is the future of Artificial Intelligence. These machines

will be super intelligent, and will have their own consciousness,
sentiments, and self-awareness.
o These machines will be smarter than human mind.
o Self-Awareness AI does not exist in reality still and it is a hypothetical
concept.
 INTELLIGENT AGENT

Types of AI Agents
Agents can be grouped into five classes based on their degree of perceived
intelligence and capability. All these agents can improve their performance
and generate better action over the time. These are given below:

o Simple Reflex Agent

o Model-based reflex agent
o Goal-based agents
o Utility-based agent
o Learning agent

1. Simple Reflex agent:

o The Simple reflex agents are the simplest agents. These agents take
decisions on the basis of the current percepts and ignore the rest of
the percept history.
o These agents only succeed in the fully observable environment.
o The Simple reflex agent does not consider any part of percepts history
during their decision and action process.
o The Simple reflex agent works on Condition-action rule, which means it
maps the current state to action. Such as a Room Cleaner agent, it
works only if there is dirt in the room.
o Problems for the simple reflex agent design approach:
o They have very limited intelligence
o They do not have knowledge of non-perceptual parts of the
current state
o Mostly too big to generate and to store.
 o Not adaptive to changes in the environment.

2. Model-based reflex agent

o The Model-based agent can work in a partially observable
environment, and track the situation.
o A model-based agent has two important factors:
o Model: It is knowledge about "how things happen in the world,"
so it is called a Model-based agent.
o Internal State: It is a representation of the current state based
on percept history.
o These agents have the model, "which is knowledge of the world" and
based on the model they perform actions.
o Updating the agent state requires information about:

a. How the world evolves

b. How the agent's action affects the world.
3. Goal-based agents
o The knowledge of the current state environment is not always
sufficient to decide for an agent to what to do.
o The agent needs to know its goal which describes desirable situations.
o Goal-based agents expand the capabilities of the model-based agent
by having the "goal" information.
o They choose an action, so that they can achieve the goal.
o These agents may have to consider a long sequence of possible
actions before deciding whether the goal is achieved or not. Such
considerations of different scenario are called searching and planning,
which makes an agent proactive.
4. Utility-based agents
o These agents are similar to the goal-based agent but provide an extra
component of utility measurement which makes them different by
providing a measure of success at a given state.
o Utility-based agent act based not only goals but also the best way to
achieve the goal.
o The Utility-based agent is useful when there are multiple possible
alternatives, and an agent has to choose in order to perform the best
action.
o The utility function maps each state to a real number to check how
efficiently each action achieves the goals.
5. Learning Agents
o A learning agent in AI is the type of agent which can learn from its past
experiences, or it has learning capabilities.
o It starts to act with basic knowledge and then able to act and adapt
automatically through learning.
o A learning agent has mainly four conceptual components, which are:

a. Learning element: It is responsible for making improvements

by learning from environment
b. Critic: Learning element takes feedback from critic which
describes that how well the agent is doing with respect to a fixed
performance standard.
c. Performance element: It is responsible for selecting external
action
d. Problem generator: This component is responsible for
suggesting actions that will lead to new and informative
experiences.
 o Hence, learning agents are able to learn, analyze performance, and
look for new ways to improve the performance.

Agents in Artificial Intelligence

An AI system can be defined as the study of the rational agent and its
environment. The agents sense the environment through sensors and act on
their environment through actuators. An AI agent can have mental properties
such as knowledge, belief, intention, etc.

What is an Agent?
An agent can be anything that perceiveits environment through sensors and
act upon that environment through actuators. An Agent runs in the cycle
of perceiving, thinking, and acting. An agent can be:

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o Human-Agent: A human agent has eyes, ears, and other organs which work
for sensors and hand, legs, vocal tract work for actuators.
o Robotic Agent: A robotic agent can have cameras, infrared range finder,
NLP for sensors and various motors for actuators.
 o Software Agent: Software agent can have keystrokes, file contents as
sensory input and act on those inputs and display output on the screen.

Hence the world around us is full of agents such as thermostat, cellphone,

camera, and even we are also agents.

Before moving forward, we should first know about sensors, effectors, and
actuators.

Sensor: Sensor is a device which detects the change in the environment

and sends the information to other electronic devices. An agent observes its
environment through sensors.

Actuators: Actuators are the component of machines that converts energy

into motion. The actuators are only responsible for moving and controlling a
system. An actuator can be an electric motor, gears, rails, etc.

Effectors: Effectors are the devices which affect the environment. Effectors
can be legs, wheels, arms, fingers, wings, fins, and display screen.

Intelligent Agents:
An intelligent agent is an autonomous entity which act upon an environment
using sensors and actuators for achieving goals. An intelligent agent may
learn from the environment to achieve their goals. A thermostat is an
example of an intelligent agent.

Following are the main four rules for an AI agent:

o Rule 1: An AI agent must have the ability to perceive the environment.

o Rule 2: The observation must be used to make decisions.
o Rule 3: Decision should result in an action.
o Rule 4: The action taken by an AI agent must be a rational action.

Rational Agent:
A rational agent is an agent which has clear preference, models uncertainty,
and acts in a way to maximize its performance measure with all possible
actions.
 A rational agent is said to perform the right things. AI is about creating
rational agents to use for game theory and decision theory for various real-
world scenarios.

For an AI agent, the rational action is most important because in AI

reinforcement learning algorithm, for each best possible action, agent gets
the positive reward and for each wrong action, an agent gets a negative
reward.

Note: Rational agents in AI are very similar to intelligent agents.

Rationality:
The rationality of an agent is measured by its performance measure.
Rationality can be judged on the basis of following points:

o Performance measure which defines the success criterion.

o Agent prior knowledge of its environment.
o Best possible actions that an agent can perform.
o The sequence of percepts.

Note: Rationality differs from Omniscience because an Omniscient agent knows the
actual outcome of its action and act accordingly, which is not possible in reality.

Structure of an AI Agent
The task of AI is to design an agent program which implements the agent
function. The structure of an intelligent agent is a combination of
architecture and agent program. It can be viewed as:

1. Agent = Architecture + Agent program

Following are the main three terms involved in the structure of an AI agent:

Architecture: Architecture is machinery that an AI agent executes on.

Agent Function: Agent function is used to map a percept to an action.

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1. f:P* → A
Agent program: Agent program is an implementation of agent function. An
agent program executes on the physical architecture to produce function f.

PEAS Representation
PEAS is a type of model on which an AI agent works upon. When we define
an AI agent or rational agent, then we can group its properties under PEAS
representation model. It is made up of four words:

o P: Performance measure
o E: Environment
o A: Actuators
o S: Sensors

Here performance measure is the objective for the success of an agent's

behavior.

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PEAS for self-driving cars:

Let's suppose a self-driving car then PEAS representation will be:

Performance: Safety, time, legal drive, comfort

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Environment: Roads, other vehicles, road signs, pedestrian

Actuators: Steering, accelerator, brake, signal, horn

Sensors: Camera, GPS, speedometer, odometer, accelerometer, sonar.

Example of Agents with their PEAS representation

 Agent Performance Environment Actuators Sensors
measure

1. Medical Keyboard
Diagnose o Healthy patient o Patient o Tests (Entry o
o Minimized cost o Hospital o Treatments symptoms)

o Staff

2. Vacuum
Cleaner o Cleanness o Room o Wheels o Camera
o Efficiency o Table o Brushes o Dirt
o Battery life o Wood floor o Vacuum detection
Extractor sensor
o Security o Carpet
o Cliff senso
o Various
obstacles o Bump
Sensor
o Infrared
Wall
Sensor

3. Part -
picking o Percentage of o Conveyor o Jointed o Camera
Robot parts in correct belt with Arms o Joint angl
bins. parts, o Hand sensors.
o Bins

Agent Environment in AI

An environment is everything in the world which surrounds the agent, but it

is not a part of an agent itself. An environment can be described as a
situation in which an agent is present.
The environment is where agent lives, operate and provide the agent with
something to sense and act upon it. An environment is mostly said to be
non-feministic.

Features of Environment
As per Russell and Norvig, an environment can have various features from
the point of view of an agent:

1. Fully observable vs Partially Observable

2. Static vs Dynamic
3. Discrete vs Continuous
4. Deterministic vs Stochastic
5. Single-agent vs Multi-agent
6. Episodic vs sequential
7. Known vs Unknown
8. Accessible vs Inaccessible

1. Fully observable vs Partially Observable:

o If an agent sensor can sense or access the complete state of an

environment at each point in time then it is a fully observable
environment, it is partially observable. For reference, Imagine a chess-
playing agent. In this case, the agent can fully observe the state of the
chessboard at all times. Its sensors (in this case, vision or the ability to
access the board's state) provide complete information about the
current position of all pieces. This is a fully observable environment
because the agent has perfect information about the state of the
world.
o A fully observable environment is easy as there is no need to maintain
the internal state to keep track of the history of the world. For
reference, Consider a self-driving car navigating a busy city. While the
car has sensors like cameras, lidar, and radar, it can't see everything
at all times. Buildings, other vehicles, and pedestrians can obstruct its
sensors. In this scenario, the car's environment is partially observable
 because it doesn't have complete and constant access to all relevant
information. It needs to maintain an internal state and history to make
informed decisions even when some information is temporarily
unavailable.
o An agent with no sensors in all environments then such an
environment is called unobservable. For reference, think about an
agent designed to predict earthquakes but placed in a sealed,
windowless room with no sensors or access to external data. In this
situation, the environment is unobservable because the agent has no
way to gather information about the outside world. It can't sense any
aspect of its environment, making it completely unobservable.

2. Deterministic vs Stochastic:

o If an agent's current state and selected action can completely

determine the next state of the environment, then such an
environment is called a deterministic environment. For reference,
Chess is a classic example of a deterministic environment. In chess,
the rules are well-defined, and each move made by a player has a
clear and predictable outcome based on those rules. If you move a
pawn from one square to another, the resulting state of the chessboard
is entirely determined by that action, as is your opponent's response.
There's no randomness or uncertainty in the outcomes of chess moves
because they follow strict rules. In a deterministic environment like
chess, knowing the current state and the actions taken allows you to
completely determine the next state.
o A stochastic environment is random and cannot be determined
completely by an agent. For reference, The stock market is an example
of a stochastic environment. It's highly influenced by a multitude of
unpredictable factors, including economic events, investor sentiment,
and news. While there are patterns and trends, the exact behavior of
stock prices is inherently random and cannot be completely
determined by any individual or agent. Even with access to extensive
data and analysis tools, stock market movements can exhibit a high
 degree of unpredictability. Random events and market sentiment play
significant roles, introducing uncertainty.
o In a deterministic, fully observable environment, an agent does not
need to worry about uncertainty.

3. Episodic vs Sequential:

o In an episodic environment, there is a series of one-shot actions, and

only the current percept is required for the action. For example, Tic-
Tac-Toe is a classic example of an episodic environment. In this game,
two players take turns placing their symbols (X or O) on a 3x3 grid.
Each move by a player is independent of previous moves, and the goal
is to form a line of three symbols horizontally, vertically, or diagonally.
The game consists of a series of one-shot actions where the current
state of the board is the only thing that matters for the next move.
There's no need for the players to remember past moves because they
don't affect the current move. The game is self-contained and episodic.
o However, in a Sequential environment, an agent requires memory of
past actions to determine the next best actions. For example, Chess is
an example of a sequential environment. Unlike Tic-Tac-Toe, chess is a
complex game where the outcome of each move depends on a
sequence of previous moves. In chess, players must consider the
history of the game, as the current position of pieces, previous moves,
and potential future moves all influence the best course of action. To
play chess effectively, players need to maintain a memory of past
actions, anticipate future moves, and plan their strategies accordingly.
It's a sequential environment because the sequence of actions and the
history of the game significantly impact decision-making.

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4. Single-agent vs Multi-agent

o If only one agent is involved in an environment, and operating by itself

then such an environment is called a single-agent environment. For
example, Solitaire is a classic example of a single-agent environment.
 When you play Solitaire, you're the only agent involved. You make all
the decisions and actions to achieve a goal, which is to arrange a deck
of cards in a specific way. There are no other agents or players
interacting with you. It's a solitary game where the outcome depends
solely on your decisions and moves. In this single-agent environment,
the agent doesn't need to consider the actions or decisions of other
entities.
o However, if multiple agents are operating in an environment, then such
an environment is called a multi-agent environment. For reference, A
soccer match is an example of a multi-agent environment. In a soccer
game, there are two teams, each consisting of multiple players
(agents). These players work together to achieve common goals
(scoring goals and preventing the opposing team from scoring). Each
player has their own set of actions and decisions, and they interact
with both their teammates and the opposing team. The outcome of the
game depends on the coordinated actions and strategies of all the
agents on the field. It's a multi-agent environment because there are
multiple autonomous entities (players) interacting in a shared
environment.
o The agent design problems in the multi-agent environment are
different from single-agent environments.

5. Static vs Dynamic:

o If the environment can change itself while an agent is deliberating then

such an environment is called a dynamic environment it is called a
static environment.
o Static environments are easy to deal with because an agent does not
need to continue looking at the world while deciding on an action. For
reference, A crossword puzzle is an example of a static environment.
When you work on a crossword puzzle, the puzzle itself doesn't change
while you're thinking about your next move. The arrangement of clues
and empty squares remains constant throughout your problem-solving
process. You can take your time to deliberate and find the best word to
 fill in each blank, and the puzzle's state remains unaltered during this
process. It's a static environment because there are no changes in the
puzzle based on your deliberations.
o However, for a dynamic environment, agents need to keep looking at
the world at each action. For reference, Taxi driving is an example of a
dynamic environment. When you're driving a taxi, the environment is
constantly changing. The road conditions, traffic, pedestrians, and
other vehicles all contribute to the dynamic nature of this environment.
As a taxi driver, you need to keep a constant watch on the road and
adapt your actions in real time based on the changing circumstances.
The environment can change rapidly, requiring your continuous
attention and decision-making. It's a dynamic environment because it
evolves while you're deliberating and taking action.

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6. Discrete vs Continuous:

o If in an environment, there are a finite number of percepts and actions

that can be performed within it, then such an environment is called a
discrete environment it is called a continuous environment.
o Chess is an example of a discrete environment. In chess, there are a
finite number of distinct chess pieces (e.g., pawns, rooks, knights) and
a finite number of squares on the chessboard. The rules of chess define
clear, discrete moves that a player can make. Each piece can be in a
specific location on the board, and players take turns making
individual, well-defined moves. The state of the chessboard is discrete
and can be described by the positions of the pieces on the board.
o Controlling a robotic arm to perform precise movements in a factory
setting is an example of a continuous environment. In this context, the
robot arm's position and orientation can exist along a continuous
spectrum. There are virtually infinite possible positions and
orientations for the robotic arm within its workspace. The control
inputs to move the arm, such as adjusting joint angles or applying
forces, can also vary continuously. Agents in this environment must
 operate within a continuous state and action space, and they need to
make precise, continuous adjustments to achieve their goals.

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7. Known vs Unknown

o Known and unknown are not actually a feature of an environment, but

it is an agent's state of knowledge to perform an action.
o In a known environment, the results of all actions are known to the
agent. While in an unknown environment, an agent needs to learn how
it works in order to perform an action.
o It is quite possible for a known environment to be partially observable
and an Unknown environment to be fully observable.
o The opening theory in chess can be considered as a known
environment for experienced chess players. Chess has a vast body of
knowledge regarding opening moves, strategies, and responses.
Experienced players are familiar with established openings, and they
have studied various sequences of moves and their outcomes. When
they make their initial moves in a game, they have a good
understanding of the potential consequences based on their
knowledge of known openings.
o Imagine a scenario where a rover or drone is sent to explore an alien
planet with no prior knowledge or maps of the terrain. In this unknown
environment, the agent (rover or drone) has to explore and learn about
the terrain as it goes along. It doesn't have prior knowledge of the
landscape, potential hazards, or valuable resources. The agent needs
to use sensors and data it collects during exploration to build a map
and understand how the terrain works. It operates in an unknown
environment because the results and consequences of its actions are
not initially known, and it must learn from its experiences.

8. Accessible vs Inaccessible
 o If an agent can obtain complete and accurate information about the
state's environment, then such an environment is called an Accessible
environment else it is called inaccessible.
o For example, Imagine an empty room equipped with highly accurate
temperature sensors. These sensors can provide real-time temperature
measurements at any point within the room. An agent placed in this
room can obtain complete and accurate information about the
temperature at different locations. It can access this information at any
time, allowing it to make decisions based on the precise temperature
data. This environment is accessible because the agent can acquire
complete and accurate information about the state of the room,
specifically its temperature.
o For example, Consider a scenario where a satellite in space is tasked
with monitoring a specific event taking place on Earth, such as a
natural disaster or a remote area's condition. While the satellite can
capture images and data from space, it cannot access fine-grained
information about the event's details. For example, it may see a forest
fire occurring but cannot determine the exact temperature at specific
locations within the fire or identify individual objects on the ground.
The satellite's observations provide valuable data, but the environment
it is monitoring (Earth) is vast and complex, making it impossible to
access complete and detailed information about all aspects of the
event. In this case, the Earth's surface is an inaccessible environment
for obtaining fine-grained information about specific events.

Turing Test in AI
In 1950, Alan Turing introduced a test to check whether a machine can think
like a human or not, this test is known as the Turing Test. In this test, Turing
proposed that the computer can be said to be an intelligent if it can mimic
human response under specific conditions.

Turing Test was introduced by Turing in his 1950 paper, "Computing

Machinery and Intelligence," which considered the question, "Can Machine
think?"
The Turing test is based on a party game "Imitation game," with some
modifications. This game involves three players in which one player is
Computer, another player is human responder, and the third player is a
human Interrogator, who is isolated from other two players and his job is to
find that which player is machine among two of them.

Consider, Player A is a computer, Player B is human, and Player C is an

interrogator. Interrogator is aware that one of them is machine, but he needs
to identify this on the basis of questions and their responses.

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The conversation between all players is via keyboard and screen so the
result would not depend on the machine's ability to convert words as speech.
The test result does not depend on each correct answer, but only how closely
its responses like a human answer. The computer is permitted to do
everything possible to force a wrong identification by the interrogator.

The questions and answers can be like:

Interrogator: Are you a computer?

PlayerA (Computer): No

Interrogator: Multiply two large numbers such as (256896489*456725896)

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Player A: Long pause and give the wrong answer.

In this game, if an interrogator would not be able to identify which is a

machine and which is human, then the computer passes the test
successfully, and the machine is said to be intelligent and can think like a
human.

"In 1991, the New York businessman Hugh Loebner announces the prize
competition, offering a $100,000 prize for the first computer to pass the
Turing test. However, no AI program to till date, come close to passing an
undiluted Turing test".

History of Turing Test

The Turing Test, introduced by Alan Turing in 1950, is a crucial milestone in
the history of artificial intelligence (AI). It came to light in his paper titled
'Computing Machinery and Intelligence.' Turing aimed to address a profound
question: Can machines mimic human-like intelligence?

This curiosity arose from Turing's fascination with the concept of creating
thinking machines that exhibit intelligent behavior. He proposed the Turing
Test as a practical method to determine if a machine can engage in natural
language conversations convincingly, making a human evaluator believe it's
human.

Turing's work on this test laid the foundation for AI research and spurred
discussions about machine intelligence. It provided a framework for
evaluating AI systems. Over time, the Turing Test has evolved and remains a
topic of debate and improvement. Its historical importance in shaping AI is
undeniable, continuously motivating AI researchers and serving as a
benchmark for gauging AI advancements.
Variations of the Turing Test
Over the years, different versions of the Turing Test have appeared to
overcome its constraints and deliver a more thorough assessment of AI
capabilities:

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1. Total Turing Test: This extended version of the Turing Test goes
beyond text-based conversations. It assesses the machine's capacity
to comprehend and respond to not just words but also visual and
physical cues presented by the interrogator. This includes recognizing
objects shown to it and taking requested actions in response.
Essentially, it examines if the AI can interact with the world in a way
that reflects a deeper level of understanding.
2. Reverse Turing Test: In a twist on the traditional Turing Test, the
roles are reversed here. In this variation, it's the machine that plays
the role of the interrogator. Its task is to differentiate between humans
and other machines based on the responses it receives. This reversal
challenges the AI to evaluate the intelligence of others, highlighting its
ability to detect artificial intelligence.
3. Multimodal Turing Test: In a world where communication takes
many forms, the Multimodal Turing Test assesses AI's capability to
understand and respond to various modes of communication
concurrently. It examines whether AI can seamlessly process and
respond to text, speech, images, and potentially other modes
simultaneously. This variation acknowledges the diverse ways we
communicate and tests if AI can keep up with our multifaceted
interactions.

Chatbots to attempt the Turing test:

ELIZA: ELIZA was a Natural language processing computer program created
by Joseph Weizenbaum. It was created to demonstrate the ability of
communication between machine and humans. It was one of the first
chatterbots, which has attempted the Turing Test.
Parry: Parry was a chatterbot created by Kenneth Colby in 1972. Parry was
designed to simulate a person with Paranoid schizophrenia(most common
chronic mental disorder). Parry was described as "ELIZA with attitude." Parry
was tested using a variation of the Turing Test in the early 1970s.

Eugene Goostman: Eugene Goostman was a chatbot developed in Saint

Petersburg in 2001. This bot has competed in the various number of Turing
Test. In June 2012, at an event, Goostman won the competition promoted as
largest-ever Turing test content, in which it has convinced 29% of judges
that it was a human.Goostman resembled as a 13-year old virtual boy.

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The Chinese Room Argument:

There were many philosophers who really disagreed with the complete
concept of Artificial Intelligence. The most famous argument in this list was
"Chinese Room."

In the year 1980, John Searle presented "Chinese Room" thought

experiment, in his paper "Mind, Brains, and Program," which was against
the validity of Turing's Test. According to his argument, "Programming a
computer may make it to understand a language, but it will not
produce a real understanding of language or consciousness in a
computer."

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He argued that Machine such as ELIZA and Parry could easily pass the Turing
test by manipulating keywords and symbol, but they had no real
understanding of language. So it cannot be described as "thinking" capability
of a machine such as a human.

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Features required for a machine to pass the Turing

test:
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o Natural language processing: NLP is required to communicate with

Interrogator in general human language like English.
 o Knowledge representation: To store and retrieve information during
the test.
o Automated reasoning: To use the previously stored information for
answering the questions.
o Machine learning: To adapt new changes and can detect generalized
patterns.
o Vision (For total Turing test): To recognize the interrogator actions
and other objects during a test.
o Motor Control (For total Turing test): To act upon objects if
requested.

Limitation of Turing Test

o Not a True Measure of Intelligence: Passing the Turing Test
doesn't guarantee genuine machine intelligence or consciousness.
Critics, like John Searle's "Chinese Room" argument, contend that a
computer can simulate human-like responses without understanding or
consciousness.
o Simplicity of Test Scenarios: The Turing Test primarily focuses on
text-based interactions, which might not fully assess a machine's
capacity to comprehend and respond to the complexities of the real
world.

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Conclusion
The Turing Test still serves as a pivotal benchmark for assessing AI's
conversational skills in today's context. It continues to be instrumental in the
development and evaluation of chatbots and virtual assistants. Many
companies and developers employ different versions of the test to gauge
how well their AI systems can engage in conversation.

However, it's worth noting that while the Turing Test maintains its relevance,
the AI field has progressed significantly beyond its scope. Modern AI systems
leverage advanced natural language processing, machine learning, and deep
learning techniques, empowering them to execute tasks much more intricate
than imitating human dialogue. AI's applications now span a wide array of
fields, from healthcare and finance to autonomous vehicles and image
recognition, showcasing its diverse capabilities that extend well beyond
mere conversation.

PROBLEM-SOLVING

Search Algorithms in Artificial Intelligence

Introduction
Search algorithms in AI are the algorithms that are created to aid the
searchers in getting the right solution. The search issue contains search
space, first start and end point. Now by performing simulation of scenarios
and alternatives, searching algorithms help AI agents find the optimal state
for the task.

Logic used in algorithms processes the initial state and tries to get the
expected state as the solution. Because of this, AI machines and applications
just functioning using search engines and solutions that come from these
algorithms can only be as effective as the algorithms.

AI agents can make the AI interfaces usable without any software literacy.
The agents that carry out such activities do so with the aim of reaching an
end goal and develop action plans that in the end will bring the mission to an
end. Completion of the action is gained after the steps of these different
actions. The AI-agents finds the best way through the process by evaluating
all the alternatives which are present. Search systems are a common task in
artificial intelligence by which you are going to find the optimum solution for
the AI agents.

Problem-solving agents:
In Artificial Intelligence, Search techniques are universal problem-solving
methods. Rational agents or Problem-solving agents in AI mostly used
these search strategies or algorithms to solve a specific problem and provide
the best result. Problem-solving agents are the goal-based agents and use
atomic representation. In this topic, we will learn various problem-solving
search algorithms.

Search Algorithm Terminologies:

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o Search: Searchingis a step by step procedure to solve a search-

problem in a given search space. A search problem can have three
main factors:

a. Search Space: Search space represents a set of possible

solutions, which a system may have.
b. Start State: It is a state from where agent begins the search.
c. Goal test: It is a function which observe the current state and
returns whether the goal state is achieved or not.
o Search tree: A tree representation of search problem is called Search
tree. The root of the search tree is the root node which is
corresponding to the initial state.
o Actions: It gives the description of all the available actions to the
agent.
o Transition model: A description of what each action do, can be
represented as a transition model.
o Path Cost: It is a function which assigns a numeric cost to each path.
o Solution: It is an action sequence which leads from the start node to
the goal node.
o Optimal Solution: If a solution has the lowest cost among all
solutions.

Properties of Search Algorithms:

Following are the four essential properties of search algorithms to compare
the efficiency of these algorithms:

Completeness: A search algorithm is said to be complete if it guarantees to

return a solution if at least any solution exists for any random input.

Optimality: If a solution found for an algorithm is guaranteed to be the best

solution (lowest path cost) among all other solutions, then such a solution for
is said to be an optimal solution.

Time Complexity: Time complexity is a measure of time for an algorithm to

complete its task.

Space Complexity: It is the maximum storage space required at any point

during the search, as the complexity of the problem.

Importance of Search Algorithms in Artificial

Intelligence
Here, are some important factors of role of search algorithms used AI are as
follow.

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1. Solving problems:

"Workflow" logical search methods like describing the issue, getting the
necessary steps together, and specifying an area to search help AI search
algorithms getting better in solving problems. Take for instance the
development of AI search algorithms which support applications like Google
Maps by finding the fastest way or shortest route between given
destinations. These programs basically conduct the search through various
options to find the best solution possible.

2. Search programming:

Many AI functions can be designed as search oscillations, which thus specify

what to look for in formulating the solution of the given problem.

3. Goal-based agents:

Instead, the goal-directed and high-performance systems use a wide range

of search algorithms to improve the efficiency of AI. Though they are not
robots, these agents look for the ideal route for action dispersion so as to
avoid the most impacting steps that can be used to solve a problem. It is
their main aims to come up with an optimal solution which takes into
account all possible factors.

4. Support production systems:

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AI Algorithms in search engines for systems manufacturing help them run

faster. These programmable systems assist AI applications with applying
rules and methods, thus making an effective implementation possible.
Production systems involve learning of artificial intelligence systems and
their search for canned rules that lead to the wanted action.

5. Neural network systems:

Beyond this, employing neural network algorithms is also of importance of

the neural network systems. The systems are composed of these structures:
a hidden layer, and an input layer, an output layer, and nodes that are
interconnected. One of the most important functions offered by neural
networks is to address the challenges of AI within any given scenarios. AI is
somehow able to navigate the search space to find the connection weights
that will be required in the mapping of inputs to outputs. This is made better
by search algorithms in AI.

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Types of search algorithms

Based on the search problems we can classify the search algorithms
into uninformed (Blind search) search and informed search
(Heuristic search) algorithms.
Uninformed/Blind Search:
The uninformed search does not contain any domain knowledge such as
closeness, the location of the goal. It operates in a brute-force way as it only
includes information about how to traverse the tree and how to identify leaf
and goal nodes. Uninformed search applies a way in which search tree is
searched without any information about the search space like initial state
operators and test for the goal, so it is also called blind search.It examines
each node of the tree until it achieves the goal node.

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It can be divided into six main types:

o Breadth-first search
o Uniform cost search
 o Depth-first search
o Depth limited search
o Iterative deepening depth-first search
o Bidirectional Search

Informed Search
Informed search algorithms use domain knowledge. In an informed search,
problem information is available which can guide the search. Informed
search strategies can find a solution more efficiently than an uninformed
search strategy. Informed search is also called a Heuristic search.

A heuristic is a way which might not always be guaranteed for best solutions
but guaranteed to find a good solution in reasonable time.

Informed search can solve much complex problem which could not be solved
in another way.

An example of informed search algorithms is a traveling salesman problem.

1. Greedy Search
2. A* Search

Uninformed Search Algorithms

Introduction:
Uninformed search is one in which the search systems do not use any clues
about the suitable area but it depend on the random nature of search.
Nevertheless, they begins the exploration of search space (all possible
solutions) synchronously,. The search operation begins from the initial state
and providing all possible next steps arrangement until goal is reached.
These are mostly the simplest search strategies, but they may not be
suitable for complex paths which involve in irrelevant or even irrelevant
components. These algorithms are necessary for solving basic tasks or
providing simple processing before passing on the data to more advanced
search algorithms that incorporate prioritized information.

Following are the various types of uninformed search algorithms:

1. Breadth-first Search
 2. Depth-first Search
3. Depth-limited Search
4. Iterative deepening depth-first search
5. Uniform cost search
6. Bidirectional Search

1. Breadth-first Search:
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o Breadth-first search is the most common search strategy for traversing a tree
or graph. This algorithm searches breadthwise in a tree or graph, so it is
called breadth-first search.
o BFS algorithm starts searching from the root node of the tree and expands all
successor node at the current level before moving to nodes of next level.
o The breadth-first search algorithm is an example of a general-graph search
algorithm.
o Breadth-first search implemented using FIFO queue data structure.

Advantages:

o BFS will provide a solution if any solution exists.

o If there are more than one solutions for a given problem, then BFS will
provide the minimal solution which requires the least number of steps.
o It also helps in finding the shortest path in goal state, since it needs all nodes
at the same hierarchical level before making a move to nodes at lower levels.
o It is also very easy to comprehend with the help of this we can assign the
higher rank among path types.

Disadvantages:

o It requires lots of memory since each level of the tree must be saved into
memory to expand the next level.
o BFS needs lots of time if the solution is far away from the root node.
 o It can be very inefficient approach for searching through deeply layered
spaces, as it needs to thoroughly explore all nodes at each level before
moving on to the next

Example:
In the below tree structure, we have shown the traversing of the tree using
BFS algorithm from the root node S to goal node K. BFS search algorithm
traverse in layers, so it will follow the path which is shown by the dotted
arrow, and the traversed path will be:

1. S---> A--->B---->C--->D---->G--->H--->E---->F---->I---->K

Time Complexity: Time Complexity of BFS algorithm can be obtained by

the number of nodes traversed in BFS until the shallowest Node. Where the
d= depth of shallowest solution and b is a node at every state.

T (b) = 1+b2+b3+.......+ bd= O (bd)

Space Complexity: Space complexity of BFS algorithm is given by the

Memory size of frontier which is O(bd).
Completeness: BFS is complete, which means if the shallowest goal node is
at some finite depth, then BFS will find a solution.

Optimality: BFS is optimal if path cost is a non-decreasing function of the

depth of the node.

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2. Depth-first Search
o Depth-first search isa recursive algorithm for traversing a tree or graph data
structure.
o It is called the depth-first search because it starts from the root node and
follows each path to its greatest depth node before moving to the next path.
o DFS uses a stack data structure for its implementation.
o The process of the DFS algorithm is similar to the BFS algorithm.

Note: Backtracking is an algorithm technique for finding all possible solutions using
recursion.

Advantage:

o DFS requires very less memory as it only needs to store a stack of the nodes
on the path from root node to the current node.
o It takes less time to reach to the goal node than BFS algorithm (if it traverses
in the right path).
o With the help of this we can stores the route which is being tracked in
memory to save time as it only needs to keep one at a particular time.

Disadvantage:

o There is the possibility that many states keep re-occurring, and there is no
guarantee of finding the solution.
o DFS algorithm goes for deep down searching and sometime it may go to the
infinite loop.
 o The de¬pth-first search (DFS) algorithm does not always find the shorte¬st
path to a solution.

Example:
In the below search tree, we have shown the flow of depth-first search, and it
will follow the order as:

Root node--->Left node ----> right node.

It will start searching from root node S, and traverse A, then B, then D and E,
after traversing E, it will backtrack the tree as E has no other successor and
still goal node is not found. After backtracking it will traverse node C and
then G, and here it will terminate as it found goal node.

Completeness: DFS search algorithm is complete within finite state space

as it will expand every node within a limited search tree.

Time Complexity: Time complexity of DFS will be equivalent to the node

traversed by the algorithm. It is given by:

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T(n)= 1+ n2+ n3 +.........+ nm=O(nm)

Where, m= maximum depth of any node and this can be much larger
than d (Shallowest solution depth)

Space Complexity: DFS algorithm needs to store only single path from the
root node, hence space complexity of DFS is equivalent to the size of the
fringe set, which is O(bm).

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Optimal: DFS search algorithm is non-optimal, as it may generate a large

number of steps or high cost to reach to the goal node.

3. Depth-Limited Search Algorithm:

A depth-limited search algorithm is similar to depth-first search with a
predetermined limit. Depth-limited search can solve the drawback of the
infinite path in the Depth-first search. In this algorithm, the node at the
depth limit will treat as it has no successor nodes further.

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Depth-limited search can be terminated with two Conditions of

failure:

o Standard failure value: It indicates that problem does not have any
solution.
o Cutoff failure value: It defines no solution for the problem within a given
depth limit.

Advantages:

o Depth-Limited Search will restrict the search depth of the tree, thus, the
algorithm will require fewer memory resources than the straight BFS
(Breadth-First Search) and IDDFS (Iterative Deepening Depth-First Search).
After all, this implies automatic selection of more segments of the search
space and the consequent why consumption of the resources. Due to the
 depth restriction, DLS omits a predicament of holding the entire search tree
within memory which contemplatively leaves room for a more memory-
efficient vice for solving a particular kind of problems.
o When there is a leaf node depth which is as large as the highest level
allowed, do not describe its children, and then discard it from the stack.
o Depth-Limited Search does not explain the infinite loops which can arise in
classical when there are cycles in graph of cities.

Disadvantages:

o Depth-limited search also has a disadvantage of incompleteness.

o It may not be optimal if the problem has more than one solution.
o The effectiveness of the Depth-Limited Search (DLS) algorithm is largely
dependent on the depth limit specified. If the depth limit is set too low, the
algorithm may fail to find the solution altogether.

Example:
Completeness: DLS search algorithm is complete if the solution is above
the depth-limit.

Time Complexity: Time complexity of DLS algorithm is O(bℓ) where b is the

branching factor of the search tree, and l is the depth limit.

Space Complexity: Space complexity of DLS algorithm is

O(b×ℓ) where b is the branching factor of the search tree, and l is the depth
limit.

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Optimal: Depth-limited search can be viewed as a special case of DFS, and

it is also not optimal even if ℓ>d.

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4. Uniform-cost Search Algorithm:

Uniform-cost search is a searching algorithm used for traversing a weighted
tree or graph. This algorithm comes into play when a different cost is
available for each edge. The primary goal of the uniform-cost search is to
find a path to the goal node which has the lowest cumulative cost. Uniform-
cost search expands nodes according to their path costs form the root node.
It can be used to solve any graph/tree where the optimal cost is in demand.
A uniform-cost search algorithm is implemented by the priority queue. It
gives maximum priority to the lowest cumulative cost. Uniform cost search is
equivalent to BFS algorithm if the path cost of all edges is the same.

Advantages:

o Uniform cost search is optimal because at every state the path with the least
cost is chosen.
o It is an efficient when the edge weights are small, as it explores the paths in
an order that ensures that the shortest path is found early.
o It's a fundamental search method that is not overly complex, making it
accessible for many users.
o It is a type of comprehensive algorithm that will find a solution if one exists.
This means the algorithm is complete, ensuring it can locate a solution
 whenever a viable one is available. The algorithm covers all the necessary
steps to arrive at a resolution.

Disadvantages:

o It does not care about the number of steps involve in searching and only
concerned about path cost. Due to which this algorithm may be stuck in an
infinite loop.
o When in operation, UCS shall know all the edge weights to start off the
search.
o This search holds constant the list of the nodes that it has already discovered
in a priority queue. Such is a much weightier thing if you have a large graph.
Algorithm allocates the memory by storing the path sequence of prioritizes,
which can be memory intensive as the graph gets larger.With the help of
Uniform cost search we can end up with the problem if the graph has edge's
cycles with smaller cost than that of the shortest path.
o The Uniform cost search will keep deploying priority queue so that the paths
explored can be stored in any case as the graph size can be even bigger that
can eventually result in too much memory being used.

Example:
Completeness:

Uniform-cost search is complete, such as if there is a solution, UCS will find

it.

Time Complexity:

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Let C* is Cost of the optimal solution, and ε is each step to get closer to
the goal node. Then the number of steps is = C*/ε+1. Here we have taken
+1, as we start from state 0 and end to C*/ε.

Hence, the worst-case time complexity of Uniform-cost search isO(b1 + [C*/ε])/.

Space Complexity:

The same logic is for space complexity so, the worst-case space complexity
of Uniform-cost search is O(b1 + [C*/ε]).

Optimal:
Uniform-cost search is always optimal as it only selects a path with the
lowest path cost.

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5. Iterative deepeningdepth-first Search:

The iterative deepening algorithm is a combination of DFS and BFS
algorithms. This search algorithm finds out the best depth limit and does it
by gradually increasing the limit until a goal is found.

This algorithm performs depth-first search up to a certain "depth limit", and

it keeps increasing the depth limit after each iteration until the goal node is
found.

This Search algorithm combines the benefits of Breadth-first search's fast

search and depth-first search's memory efficiency.

The iterative search algorithm is useful uninformed search when search

space is large, and depth of goal node is unknown.

Here are the steps for Iterative deepening depth first search
algorithm:

o Set the depth limit to 0.

o Perform DFS to the depth limit.
o If the goal state is found, return it.
o If the goal state is not found and the maximum depth has not been reached,
increment the depth limit and repeat steps 2-4.
o If the goal state is not found and the maximum depth has been reached,
terminate the search and return failure.

Advantages:

o It combines the benefits of BFS and DFS search algorithm in terms of fast
search and memory efficiency.
o It is a type of straightforward which is used to put into practice since it builds
upon the conventional depth-first search algorithm.
 o It is a type ofsearch algorithm which provides guarantees to find the optimal
solution, as long as the cost of each edge in the search space is the same.
o It is a type ofcomplete algorithm, and the meaning of this is it will always find
a solution if one exists.
o The Iterative Deepening Depth-First Search (IDDFS) algorithm uses less
memory compared to Breadth-First Search (BFS) because it only stores the
current path in memory, rather than the entire search tree.

Disadvantages:

o The main drawback of IDDFS is that it repeats all the work of the previous
phase.

Example:
Following tree structure is showing the iterative deepening depth-first
search. IDDFS algorithm performs various iterations until it does not find the
goal node. The iteration performed by the algorithm is given as:

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1'st Iteration-----> A
2'nd Iteration----> A, B, C
3'rd Iteration------>A, B, D, E, C, F, G
4'th Iteration------>A, B, D, H, I, E, C, F, K, G
In the fourth iteration, the algorithm will find the goal node.

Completeness:

This algorithm is complete is ifthe branching factor is finite.

Time Complexity:

Let's suppose b is the branching factor and depth is d then the worst-case
time complexity is O(bd).

Space Complexity:

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The space complexity of IDDFS will be O(bd).

Optimal:

IDDFS algorithm is optimal if path cost is a non- decreasing function of the

depth of the node.

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6. Bidirectional Search Algorithm:

Bidirectional search algorithm runs two simultaneous searches, one
form initial state called as forward-search and other from goal node
called as backward-search, to find the goal node. Bidirectional
search replaces one single search graph with two small subgraphs
in which one starts the search from an initial vertex and other starts
from goal vertex. The search stops when these two graphs intersect
each other.

Bidirectional search can use search techniques such as BFS, DFS,

DLS, etc.

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Advantages:

o Bidirectional search is fast.

 o Bidirectional search requires less memory
o The graph can be extremely helpful when it is very large in size and there is
no way to make it smaller. In such cases, using this tool becomes particularly
useful.
o The cost of expanding nodes can be high in certain cases. In such scenarios,
using this approach can help reduce the number of nodes that need to be
expanded.

Disadvantages:

o Implementation of the bidirectional search tree is difficult.

o In bidirectional search, one should know the goal state in advance.
o Finding an efficient way to check if a match exists between search trees can
be tricky, which can increase the time it takes to complete the task.

Example:
In the below search tree, bidirectional search algorithm is applied. This
algorithm divides one graph/tree into two sub-graphs. It starts traversing
from node 1 in the forward direction and starts from goal node 16 in the
backward direction.

The algorithm terminates at node 9 where two searches meet.

Completeness: Bidirectional Search is complete if we use BFS in both
searches.

Time Complexity: Time complexity of bidirectional search using BFS

is O(bd).

Space Complexity: Space complexity of bidirectional search is O(bd).

Optimal: Bidirectional search is Optimal.

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