ECE 151 – Introduction to
Programming
Relational Operators
● Used to compare numbers to determine relative order
● Operators:
> Greater than
< Less than
>= Greater than or equal to
<= Less than or equal to
== Equal to
!= Not equal to
Relational Expressions
● Boolean expressions – true or false
● Examples:
12 > 5 is true
7 <= 5 is false
if x is 10, then
x == 10 is true,
x != 8 is true, and
x == 8 is false
Relational Expressions
● Can be assigned to a variable:
result = x <= y;
● Assigns 0 for false, 1 for true
● Do not confuse = and ==
The if Statement
● Allows statements to be conditionally executed or skipped
over
● Models the way we mentally evaluate situations:
○ "If it is raining, take an umbrella."
○ "If it is cold outside, wear a coat."
Flowchart for Evaluating a Decision
Flowchart for Evaluating a Decision
The if Statement
● General Format:
if (expression)
statement;
The if Statement-What Happens
To evaluate:
if (expression)
statement;
● If the expression is true, then statement is executed.
● If the expression is false, then statement is
skipped.
if Statement in Program 4-2
Continued…
if Statement in Program 4-2
Flowchart for Program 4-2 Lines 21 and 22
if Statement Notes
● Do not place ; after (expression)
● Place statement; on a separate line after
(expression), indented:
if (score > 90)
grade = 'A';
● Be careful testing floats and doubles for equality
● 0 is false; any other value is true
Expanding the if Statement
● To execute more than one statement as part of an
if statement, enclose them in { }:
if (score > 90)
grade = 'A';
cout << "Good Job!\n";
}
● { } creates a block of code
The if/else statement
● Provides two possible paths of execution
● Performs one statement or block if the expression is
true, otherwise performs another statement or block.
The if/else statement
● General Format:
if (expression)
statement1; // or block
else
statement2; // or block
if/else-What Happens
To evaluate:
if (expression)
statement1;
else
statement2;
● If the expression is true, then statement1 is
executed and statement2 is skipped.
● If the expression is false, then statement1 is
skipped and statement2 is executed.
The if/else statement and Modulus
Operator in Program 4-8
Flowchart for Program 4-8 Lines 14 through
18
Testing the Divisor in Program 4-9
Continued…
Testing the Divisor in Program 4-9
Nested if Statements
● An if statement that is nested inside another if statement
● Nested if statements can be used to test more than one condition
Flowchart for a Nested if Statement
Nested if Statements
● From Program 4-10
Nested if Statements
● Another example, from Program 4-1
Use Proper Indentation!
The if/else if Statement
● Tests a series of conditions until one is found to be true
● Often simpler than using nested if/else statements
● Can be used to model thought processes such as:
"If it is raining, take an umbrella,
else, if it is windy, take a hat,
else, take sunglasses”
if/else if Format
if (expression)
statement1; // or block
else if (expression)
statement2; // or block
.
. // other else ifs .
else if (expression)
statementn; // or block
The if/else if Statement in Program 4-13
Using a Trailing else to Catch Errors in
Program 4-14
● The trailing else clause is optional, but it is best used to
catch errors.
This trailing
else catches
invalid test
scores
Flags
● Variable that signals a condition
● Usually implemented as a bool variable
● Can also be an integer
○ The value 0 is considered false
○ Any nonzero value is considered true
● As with other variables in functions, must be assigned an
initial value before it is used
Logical Operators
● Used to create relational expressions from other relational
expressions
● Operators, meaning, and explanation:
&& AND New relational expression is true if both
expressions are true
|| OR New relational expression is true if either
expression is true
! NOT Reverses the value of an expression – true
expression becomes false, and false becomes
true
Logical Operators-Examples
int x = 12, y = 5, z = -4;
(x > y) && (y > z) true
(x > y) && (z > y) false
(x <= z) || (y == z) false
(x <= z) || (y != z) true
!(x >= z) false
The logical && operator in Program 4-15
The logical || Operator in Program 4-16
The logical ! Operator in Program 4-17
Logical Operator-Notes
● ! has highest precedence, followed by &&, then ||
● If the value of an expression can be determined by
evaluating just the sub-expression on left side of a logical
operator, then the sub-expression on the right side will not
be evaluated (short circuit evaluation)
Checking Numeric Ranges with Logical
Operators
● Used to test to see if a value falls inside a range:
if (grade >= 0 && grade <= 100)
cout << "Valid grade";
● Can also test to see if value falls outside of range:
if (grade <= 0 || grade >= 100)
cout << "Invalid grade";
● Cannot use mathematical notation:
if (0 <= grade <= 100) //doesn’t work!
Menus
● Menu-driven program: program execution controlled by
user selecting from a list of actions
● Menu: list of choices on the screen
● Menus can be implemented using if/else if
statements
Menu-Driven Program Organization
● Display list of numbered or lettered choices for actions
● Prompt user to make selection
● Test user selection in expression
○ if a match, then execute code for action
○ if not, then go on to next expression
Validating User Input
● Input validation: inspecting input data to determine
whether it is acceptable
● Bad output will be produced from bad input
● Can perform various tests:
○ Range
○ Reasonableness
○ Valid menu choice
○ Divide by zero
Input Validation in Program 4-19
Comparing Characters
● Characters are compared using their ASCII values
● 'A' < 'B'
○ The ASCII value of 'A' (65) is less than the ASCII value of 'B'(66)
● '1' < '2'
○ The ASCII value of '1' (49) is less than the ASCI value of '2' (50)
● Lowercase letters have higher ASCII codes than uppercase
letters, so 'a' > 'Z'
Relational Operators Compare Characters in
Program 4-20
Comparing string Objects
● Like characters, strings are compared using their ASCII
values
string name1 = "Mary"; The characters in each
string name2 = "Mark"; string must match before
they are equal
name1 > name2 // true
name1 <= name2 // false
name1 != name2 // true
name1 < "Mary Jane" // true
Relational Operators Compare Strings in
Program 4-21
The Conditional Operator
● Can use to create short if/else statements
● Format: expr ? expr : expr;
x<0 ? y=10 : z=20;
First Expression: 2nd Expression: 3rd Expression:
Expression to be Executes if first Executes if the first
tested expression is true expression is false
The Conditional Operator
● The value of a conditional expression is
○ The value of the second expression if the first expression is true
○ The value of the third expression if the first expression is false
● Parentheses () may be needed in an expression due to
precedence of conditional operator
The Conditional Operator in Program 4-22
The switch Statement
● Used to select among statements from several alternatives
● In some cases, can be used instead of if/else if
statements
switch Statement Format
switch (expression) //integer
{
case exp1: statement1;
case exp2: statement2;
...
case expn: statementn;
default: statementn+1;
}
The switch Statement in Program 4-23
switch Statement Requirements
1) expression must be an integer variable or an expression
that evaluates to an integer value
2) exp1 through expn must be constant integer
expressions or literals, and must be unique in the switch
statement
3) default is optional but recommended
switch Statement-How it Works
1) expression is evaluated
2) The value of expression is compared against exp1
through expn.
3) If expression matches value expi, the program
branches to the statement following expi and continues
to the end of the switch
4) If no matching value is found, the program branches to
the statement after default:
break Statement
● Used to exit a switch statement
● If it is left out, the program "falls through" the remaining
statements in the switch statement
break and default statements in Program 4-
25
Continued…
break and default statements in Program 4-
25
Using switch in Menu Systems
● switch statement is a natural choice for menu-driven
program:
○ display the menu
○ then, get the user's menu selection
○ use user input as expression in switch statement
○ use menu choices as expr in case statements
More About Blocks and Scope
● Scope of a variable is the block in which it is defined, from
the point of definition to the end of the block
● Usually defined at beginning of function
● May be defined close to first use
Inner Block Variable Definition in Program 4-
29
Variables with the Same Name
● Variables defined inside { } have local or block scope
● When inside a block within another block, can define
variables with the same name as in the outer block.
○ When in inner block, outer definition is not available
○ Not a good idea
Two Variables with the Same Name in
Program 4-30
Thank You
