Q-In cellular networks, channel allocation refers to the process of assigning 2.

2. TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access)The same frequency is shared among multiple
communication channels (frequencies, time slots, or codes) to users to establish calls or data users by dividing it into time slots.
sessions. Efficient channel allocation ensures optimal use of limited spectrum resources while o Used in 2G (GSM).
minimizing interference.
3. CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)All users share the same frequency and time,
There are three main types of channel allocation strategies: but each call is encoded with a unique spreading code.
1. Fixed Channel Allocation (FCA)Each cell is permanently assigned a fixed set of channels. o Used in 3G (UMTS, CDMA2000).
• No borrowing of channels from neighboring cells. 4. OFDMA (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access)Divides the channel into
• Advantages: Simple to implement, low computational overhead. multiple orthogonal subcarriers, allowing efficient data transmission.

• Disadvantages: Inefficient under varying traffic loads (some cells may have free o Used in 4G (LTE) and 5G.
channels while others are congested).
• Used in: Early cellular systems (1G, 2G).
Q-Handoff (or handover) is a process in mobile computing and telecommunications where
2. Dynamic Channel Allocation (DCA)Channels are not permanently assigned to any cell. an ongoing call or data session is transferred from one network cell (or base station) to another
without disconnecting the session. This ensures seamless connectivity as a mobile device
• A central controller or base station dynamically assigns channels based on real-time
moves across different coverage areas.
demand.
Types of Handoff
• Advantages: Better resource utilization, adapts to traffic variations.
Handoffs can be classified into different types based on various criteria:
• Disadvantages: More complex, requires real-time computation.
1. Based on the Nature of Transfer
• Used in: Modern 3G, 4G, and 5G networks.
• Hard Handoff (Break-Before-Make)The connection with the current base station
Types of DCA:
is terminated before establishing a new one.
• Centralized DCA: A central controller manages all channel assignments.
o Causes a brief disconnection (milliseconds).
• Distributed DCA: Each base station independently allocates channels based on local
o Used in FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access) and TDMA (Time Division
conditions.
Multiple Access) networks.
3. Hybrid Channel Allocation (HCA)
• Soft Handoff (Make-Before-Break)The connection with the new base station is
• Combines FCA and DCA: Some channels are fixed, while others are dynamically established before disconnecting from the old one.
allocated.
o Ensures no interruption in service.
• Advantages: Balances stability (FCA) and flexibility (DCA).
o Used in CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access) networks.
• Used in: Networks with mixed traffic patterns.
2. Based on the Direction of Movement
Channel Access Techniques:The way channels are divided and allocated depends on
• Intra-System Handoff (Intra-Cell Handoff)Occurs within the same network (e.g.,
the multiple access technique used:
between two base stations of the same service provider).
1. FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access)The spectrum is divided into frequency
• Inter-System Handoff (Inter-Cell Handoff)Occurs when a mobile device moves from
bands, and each user gets a dedicated frequency.
one network provider's coverage to another (e.g., between 4G and 5G or between
o Used in 1G (Analog systems). different operators).
3. Based on the Layer of Execution
 • Layer 1 (Physical Layer) Handoff: Involves switching frequencies or channels due to
Feature 3G (Third Generation) 4G (Fourth Generation)
signal strength.
• Layer 2 (Data Link Layer) Handoff: Involves reassociation with a new access point data
(e.g., in Wi-Fi networks).
• Layer 3 (Network Layer) Handoff: Involves IP address reassignment (e.g., Mobile IP - HD video streaming
handoff). - Video calling
- Online gaming
Applications - Mobile internet (slower)
4. Based on the Type of Network - Cloud computing
- Basic multimedia streaming
- IoT applications
• Horizontal Handoff: Occurs between base stations of the same network type (e.g., 4G to
4G).
600 MHz – 3.5 GHz (and higher
Frequency Bands 800 MHz – 2.1 GHz
• Vertical HandoffOccurs between different network types (e.g., Wi-Fi to Cellular, 4G to in 5G)
5G).

Q- Peak Download Speed ~42 Mbps (HSPA+) ~1 Gbps (LTE-A)

Feature 3G (Third Generation) 4G (Fourth Generation) MIMO (Multiple Input Advanced MIMO (4x4, 8x8) for
Limited or absent
Multiple Output) better speed & coverage
Introduction Year Early 2000s Around 2010
Backward Works with 2G Works with 3G, but not with 2G
Up to 2 Mbps (HSPA+: up to 100 Mbps – 1 Gbps (LTE-A: up Compatibility (GSM/CDMA) directly
Data Speed
42 Mbps) to 1 Gbps)
Key Takeaways

Latency Higher (~100 ms) Lower (~20-30 ms) 1. Speed & Latency: 4G is much faster (up to 1 Gbps) and has lower latency than 3G.
2. Technology: 3G uses CDMA/WCDMA, while 4G uses OFDMA for better efficiency.
- WCDMA (UMTS)
- LTE (Long-Term Evolution) 3. Voice Calls: 3G uses circuit-switched calls, while 4G uses VoLTE (IP-based calls).
- CDMA2000
Technology - LTE-Advanced (True 4G)
- HSPA (High-Speed Packet 4. Network Architecture: 4G is fully IP-based, making it better for data services.
- WiMAX (Initial 4G)
Access) 5. Usage: 3G supports basic internet, while 4G enables HD streaming, gaming, and IoT.
Q-
Primarily CDMA (Code OFDMA (Orthogonal Frequency
Multiple Access Method
Division Multiple Access) Division Multiple Access)
VLR (Visitor Location
Feature HLR (Home Location Register)
Register)
Circuit-switched (voice) +
Core Network Fully IP-based (All-IP Network)
Packet-switched (data)
A temporary database that stores
A central database that stores
Definition subscriber data when they roam into
- Circuit-switched (CS) for permanent subscriber data.
VoLTE (Voice over LTE) – Uses a new area.
Voice Call Handling calls IP for calls
- Packet-switched (PS) for
Location Resides in the home network of the Resides in the visited network (MSC
 3. HLR is used for authentication & billing, while VLR helps in call routing & mobility
VLR (Visitor Location
Feature HLR (Home Location Register) management.
Register)
4. VLR gets data from HLR when a user enters a new network area.
subscriber. area) where the subscriber is How HLR and VLR Work Together?When a mobile user moves to a new location:
currently located. 1. The VLR of the visited network requests subscriber data from the HLR.
2. The HLR authenticates the user and sends profile details to the VLR.
- IMSI (International Mobile
Subscriber Identity) 3. The VLR assigns a TMSI (for security) and manages call handling.
- Temporary IMSI
- MSISDN (Mobile Subscriber
- TMSI (Temporary Mobile 4. When the user leaves, the VLR deletes the temporary data.
Number)
Data Stored Subscriber Identity)
- Subscription details (services Q-1. Hardware Constraints:Mobile devices have limited:
- Current Location Area (LA)
allowed)
- Call forwarding settings (if any) • Battery life (optimization is crucial)
- Current VLR address (for routing
calls) • Processing power (compared to desktops)
• Memory & Storage (requires efficient data management)
Permanent storage (retains data even Temporary storage (deletes data
Persistence • Display size & Input methods (touch, voice, gestures)
when the subscriber is inactive). when the subscriber leaves the area).
Design Approach:Use energy-efficient algorithms.
- Authentication & Authorization - Manages roaming subscribers • Optimize apps for low CPU & RAM usage.
Function - Stores billing information - Assigns TMSI for security
• Implement caching & compression to reduce storage needs.
- Tracks subscriber’s current VLR - Handles call setup & SMS delivery
2. Network Connectivity & Variability:Intermittent connections (dead zones, switching
Updated only when subscriber between Wi-Fi & cellular).
Update Updated every time the subscriber
changes home network settings (e.g., • Bandwidth fluctuations (3G/4G/5G/Wi-Fi differences).
Frequency moves to a new location area (LA).
new SIM, plan change).
• Latency issues (real-time apps like VoIP, gaming).

Linked to a single MSC (Mobile Design Approach:Offline-first design (sync data when connection resumes).
Interaction Communicates with all MSCs in the
Switching Center) in the visited • Adaptive bitrate streaming (for video apps).
with MSC home network.
network.
• Connection-aware apps (adjust functionality based on network strength).

When you travel to another city, the 3. Mobility & Location Awareness:Devices move across cells, networks, and geographic
Example When you buy a SIM, your details are regions.
local network’s VLR temporarily
Scenario stored in HLR.
stores your data. • Location-based services (GPS, Wi-Fi positioning) require privacy considerations.

Key Differences Summary Design Approach:Use efficient handoff mechanisms (seamless switching between towers).

1. HLR = Permanent database (home network), while VLR = Temporary database (visited • Implement geofencing & location caching.
network). • Ensure user consent & data encryption for location tracking.
2. HLR stores long-term subscriber info, while VLR stores temporary roaming data. 4. Security & PrivacyData theft (unsecured Wi-Fi, malware).
 • Device loss/theft (remote wipe needed). • Cloud computing (AWS, Firebase) helps offload processing.
• User privacy (GDPR, CCPA compliance). Design Approach:Microservices architecture (scalable backend).
Design Approach:End-to-end encryption for data in transit & at rest. • Load balancing & auto-scaling.
• Biometric authentication (fingerprint, face recognition). • Edge computing (reduce latency by processing data closer to the user).
• Secure APIs & token-based authentication. 10. Cost & Resource Optimization:Mobile data plans are expensive in some regions.
5. Power Management: Battery drain due to GPS, background apps, screen brightness. • Server costs increase with user base.
Design Approach: Minimize background processes. Design Approach:Data compression (e.g., WebP images, protocol buffers).
• Use push notifications instead of polling. • Lazy loading (load content only when needed).
• Implement adaptive brightness & sleep modes. • Efficient API design (GraphQL instead of REST where applicable).
6. User Interface (UI) & User Experience (UX) Q-1. Basic Principles of Wireless Communication
• Small screens require intuitive navigation. • Electromagnetic Waves: Data is transmitted as modulated waves over specific
• Touch-friendly controls (no tiny buttons). frequencies.
• Transmitter & Receiver:
• Cross-platform consistency (iOS vs. Android design guidelines).
Design Approach: o The transmitter converts data into radio signals.

• Responsive & adaptive UI (works on phones, tablets, foldables). o The receiver decodes the signals back into data.
• Medium: Air (instead of wires).
• Gesture-based navigation (swipe, pinch-to-zoom).
• Minimalist design (avoid clutter). Key Components:
• Antennas (send/receive signals)
7. Data Synchronization & Offline Support
• Modulation (encoding data onto waves)
• Users expect apps to work without constant internet.
• Protocols (Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, 5G, etc.)
• Conflicts may arise when syncing offline changes.
Design Approach: 2. Step-by-Step Wireless Communication Process

• Conflict resolution strategies (last-write-wins, manual merge). Step 1: Data Generation (Source): A device (smartphone, laptop) generates data (e.g., a web
request).
• Local databases (SQLite, Realm, Core Data).
Step 2: Modulation:The transmitter modulates the data onto a carrier wave using techniques
• Background sync (when network is available). like:
8. Cross-Platform Compatibility:Different OS versions, screen sizes, hardware capabilities. o Frequency Modulation (FM)
Design Approach:Use hybrid frameworks (Flutter, React Native). o Amplitude Modulation (AM)
• Test on multiple devices & OS versions. o Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM – used in 4G/5G)
• Follow platform-specific guidelines (Material Design, Human Interface Guidelines). Step 3: Transmission via Antenna: The modulated signal is sent as radio waves through an
9. Scalability & Cloud Integration:Apps must handle millions of users without crashing. antenna.
 • Different frequencies are used for different technologies:
Frequency
Technology How It Works Range Use Case
o Wi-Fi: 2.4 GHz / 5 GHz Band
o Bluetooth: 2.4 GHz
Mesh networking for IoT
o 4G/5G: 600 MHz – 6 GHz (and mmWave for 5G) Zigbee
devices.
2.4 GHz ~100m Smart homes

Step 4: Propagation Through Air: Signals travel at the speed of light but weaken due to:
o Distance (inverse-square law) Uses geostationary/Low Earth Global GPS, rural
Satellite 1-50 GHz
Orbit (LEO) satellites. coverage internet
o Obstacles (walls, buildings)
o Interference (other devices, weather)
Step 5: Reception & Demodulation: The receiver’s antenna captures the signal. 4. Key Challenges in Wireless Communication

• The demodulator extracts the original data from the carrier wave. 1. Interference: Other devices (microwaves, competing Wi-Fi networks) can disrupt
signals.
Step 6: Data Processing: The received data is processed (e.g., loading a webpage, playing
music). o Solution: Frequency hopping (Bluetooth), better modulation (5G).

3. Types of Wireless Technologies & How They Work 2. Signal Attenuation: Signals weaken over distance.
o Solution: Repeaters, mesh networks.
Frequency
Technology How It Works Range Use Case 3. Security Risks: Eavesdropping, man-in-the-middle attacks.
Band
o Solution: Encryption (WPA3 for Wi-Fi, TLS for cellular).
Uses routers & access 2.4 GHz / 5 ~100m Internet
Wi-Fi 4. Latency: Delay in data transmission (critical for gaming, VoIP).
points to create LANs. GHz / 6 GHz (indoors) access
o Solution: 5G ultra-low latency (~1ms).
Wireless 5. Future Trends in Wireless Tech
Short-range pairing between ~10m
Bluetooth 2.4 GHz headphones,
devices. (Class 2) • 6G (Beyond 2030): Terahertz (THz) frequencies, AI-driven networks.
IoT
• Wi-Fi 7: 30 Gbps speeds, multi-link operation.
600 MHz – 6 • IoT Expansion: More devices using LPWAN (LoRa, NB-IoT).
Cellular Uses cell towers for wide-area Mobile
GHz (mmWave Kilometers
(4G/5G) coverage. internet, calls • Quantum Communication: Hack-proof wireless networks.
for 5G)

Inductive coupling for Contactless Q-Mobile computing faces several challenges due to the inherent limitations of mobile
NFC 13.56 MHz <10cm
touch-based data transfer. payments devices, wireless networks, and user mobility. Below are the key challenges categorized
into hardware, software, network, security, and usability aspects.
LF (125 kHz) /
1. Hardware Limitations
HF (13.56 Few cm to Inventory
RFID Uses radio tags for tracking. a) Battery Life & Power Consumption
MHz) / UHF 100m tracking
(900 MHz) • Mobile devices rely on batteries with limited capacity.
 • High-power components (CPU, GPU, display, radios) drain battery quickly. o Biometric authentication (fingerprint, face unlock).
• Solutions:Energy-efficient processors (ARM architecture). c) Malware & Phishing:Mobile malware (spyware, ransomware) is increasing.
o Adaptive brightness, battery-saving modes. • Solutions:App sandboxing (iOS, Android security models).
o Optimized background processes. o Regular OS updates.
b) Limited Processing Power & Memory: Mobile CPUs are less powerful than desktops. 4. Software & Compatibility Issues
• Limited RAM affects multitasking. a) Fragmentation (Different OS Versions & Devices):Android runs on thousands of devices
with varying specs.
• Solutions:Cloud computing (offloading tasks to servers).
• Solutions:Responsive UI design.
o Lightweight apps (Progressive Web Apps, PWAs).
o Cross-platform frameworks (Flutter, React Native).
c) Storage Constraints: Limited internal storage (especially in budget devices).
b) App Performance Optimization: Heavy apps drain battery and slow down devices.
• Solutions:Cloud storage (Google Drive, iCloud).
• Solutions:Efficient coding (Kotlin, Swift instead of Java/Objective-C).
o Efficient caching strategies.
o Lazy loading (load content only when needed).
2. Network & Connectivity Issues
5. Usability & User Experience (UX) Challenges
a) Variable Bandwidth & Latency: Wireless networks (3G/4G/5G/Wi-Fi) have inconsistent
speeds. a) Small Screen Size:Limited space for UI elements.
• High latency affects real-time apps (VoIP, gaming). • Solutions:Minimalist design (e.g., Google’s Material Design).
• Solutions: o Gesture-based navigation (swipe, pinch-to-zoom).
o Adaptive streaming (e.g., YouTube adjusts quality). b) Input Methods:Touchscreens lack precision (compared to mouse/keyboard).
o Edge computing (reduce latency by processing data closer to the user). • Solutions:Voice assistants (Siri, Google Assistant).
b) Intermittent Connectivity: Dead zones, network switching (Wi-Fi to cellular). o Haptic feedback (improves touch response).
• Solutions: c) Cross-Platform Consistency:Apps must work on iOS, Android, tablets, foldables.
o Offline-first apps (e.g., Google Docs offline mode). • Solutions:Adaptive UI frameworks (Jetpack Compose, SwiftUI).
o Data synchronization when connection resumes. 6. Energy Efficiency & Heat Dissipation:High-performance tasks (gaming, AR/VR) cause
overheating.
c) Roaming & Handoff Challenges: Seamless switching between networks (e.g., 4G to Wi-Fi)
is complex. • Solutions:Thermal throttling (reduces CPU speed to cool down).
• Solutions:Fast handover algorithms (5G improves this). o Low-power modes.
3. Security & Privacy Risks 7. Cost & Infrastructure Challenges:5G rollout requires expensive infrastructure.
a) Data Theft & Eavesdropping: Public Wi-Fi is vulnerable to man-in-the-middle attacks. • Mobile data is costly in some regions.
• Solutions:VPNs, end-to-end encryption (WhatsApp, Signal). • Solutions:Wi-Fi offloading (use Wi-Fi when available).
b) Device Loss/Theft:Sensitive data can be accessed if a phone is stolen. o Data compression (Google’s AMP, Facebook Lite).
• Solutions:Remote wipe (Find My iPhone, Android Device Manager).
Q-Data broadcasting refers to the one-to-many transmission of data over a wireless ✔ Efficient for mass communication (sends once, reaches many).
network, where a single sender disseminates information to multiple receivers simultaneously. ✔ Reduces network load (vs. multiple unicast streams).
Unlike unicast (one-to-one) or multicast (one-to-selected-group), broadcasting sends data to all ✔ Real-time dissemination (critical for alerts).
devices within a network range, regardless of whether they need it or not.
Disadvantages & Challenges
How Data Broadcasting Works
Bandwidth Waste (devices may ignore irrelevant broadcasts).
1. Sender Transmission:A base station (e.g., Wi-Fi router, cellular tower) sends a single
Security Risks (eavesdropping, spam broadcasts).
data stream.
Network Congestion (excessive broadcasts can flood networks).
o Example: Emergency alerts, live TV, software updates.
Broadcasting vs. Multicast vs. Unicast
2. Signal Propagation:The broadcast signal is transmitted over a shared wireless
medium (radio waves, Wi-Fi, 5G). Feature Broadcast Multicast Unicast
3. Receiver Handling:All devices in the coverage area receive the signal.
Target All devices Selected group Single device
o Devices filter relevant data (e.g., only Android phones accept an OS update
broadcast).
Efficiency Low (wastes bandwidth) Medium High
Types of Broadcasting in Wireless Networks

Type Description Example Use Case Emergency alerts Video conferencing Web browsing

Optimizations for Efficient Broadcasting

Network-Wide Sent to all devices in a network (LAN,
ARP requests in Wi-Fi. 1. Filtering (devices ignore irrelevant broadcasts).
Broadcast cellular).
2. Time-Slotted Broadcasts (scheduled transmissions to reduce collisions).
DHCP discovery
Limited Broadcast Restricted to a local subnet. 3. Hierarchical Broadcasting (e.g., 5G’s beamforming for targeted coverage).
messages.
Q-1. High Bit Error Rates (BER) in Wireless Links
Sent to all devices in a specific Live sports streaming over • Issue: Wireless channels suffer from interference, fading, and noise, causing packet
Directed Broadcast
network. IPTV. corruption.

Applications of Data Broadcasting • TCP's Response: Mistransmits lost/corrupted packets, assuming they were lost due to
congestion.
1. Emergency Alerts (e.g., Amber Alerts, weather warnings).
• Effect: Unnecessary congestion window reduction, leading to low throughput.
2. Live Media Streaming (TV, radio over digital networks).
Solutions:Forward Error Correction (FEC) to reduce retransmissions.
3. Software Updates (e.g., iOS/Android updates sent to all devices).
• Link-layer retransmissions (e.g., Wi-Fi’s ACK mechanism).
4. Advertising (Bluetooth beacons in malls).
2. Frequent Disconnections & Handoffs
5. Routing Protocols (Wi-Fi SSID broadcasts, OSPF in mesh networks).
• Issue: Mobile devices switch between base stations (e.g., Wi-Fi to cellular), causing
temporary disconnections.
Advantages of Broadcasting • TCP's Response: Interprets disconnection as congestion, triggering slow start.
 • Effect: Degraded performance after reconnection. • Issue: TCP’s frequent ACKs and retransmissions drain battery.
Solutions: • Effect: Mobile devices (IoT sensors, smartphones) suffer reduced battery life.
• TCP-Freeze: Pauses timers during disconnection. Solutions:
• Fast Handover Protocols (e.g., Mobile IP, MPTCP). • TCP Lite (reduces control overhead).
3. Asymmetric Bandwidth & Latency • Header Compression (ROHC for 4G/5G).
• Issue: Wireless uplink (device to tower) is often slower than downlink. 7. Multi-Path & Heterogeneous Networks
• Effect: ACKs get delayed, causing buffer bloat and timeout retransmissions. • Issue: Modern devices use Wi-Fi + Cellular simultaneously, but standard TCP uses a
single path.
• Example: A smartphone on 4G may have a fast download but slow upload.
• Effect: Underutilization of available bandwidth.
Solutions:
Solutions:
• ACK compression (bundling multiple ACKs).
• MPTCP (Multi-Path TCP) (aggregates multiple connections).
• TCP Westwood+ (better bandwidth estimation).
• QUIC (Google’s UDP-based protocol for faster recovery).
4. Random Packet Loss (Not Always Due to Congestion)
• Issue: Wireless packet loss occurs due to:
Comparison of TCP Variants for Wireless
o Signal fading
o Interference (e.g., microwave vs. Wi-Fi) TCP Variant Wireless Optimization Best For
o Mobility (roaming between cells)
TCP Reno Basic congestion control Wired networks
• TCP's Flaw: Assumes all losses are due to congestion, leading to unnecessary rate
reduction.
TCP Westwood+ Better bandwidth estimation 4G/LTE
Solutions:
• TCP Vegas (detects congestion via RTT, not just loss). TCP Vegas RTT-based congestion detection Wi-Fi
• Explicit Congestion Notification (ECN) (routers signal congestion).
MPTCP Multi-path support Smartphones (Wi-Fi + 5G)
5. Variable Round-Trip Time (RTT)
• Issue: Wireless networks have fluctuating delays due to: QUIC Faster recovery (UDP-based) Web browsing (HTTP/3)
o Channel contention (many devices sharing bandwidth).
Q-1. WAP Architecture Components:The WAP architecture follows a client-server
o Distance from the base station. model and is structured in layers similar to the OSI model. Here are the key components:
• Effect: TCP’s RTT estimation becomes inaccurate, causing premature timeouts. A. WAP Client (Mobile Device)
Solutions: • WAP Browser (Micro Browser):Lightweight web browser for mobile devices (e.g.,
• Adaptive Retransmission Timers (e.g., TCP Timestamps). WML renderer).

• TCP Hybla (optimized for high-latency wireless). o Supports Wireless Markup Language (WML) instead of HTML.

6. Energy Efficiency Constraints

 • WTA (Wireless Telephony Application) User Agent:Enables telephony services (e.g., • Example: Checking news, weather, or stock prices.
call control from web apps).
B. Wireless Telephony Applications (WTA)
B. WAP Gateway (Proxy Server):Acts as an intermediary between mobile clients and web
• Call management (initiate/end calls via WAP).
servers.
• Interactive Voice Response (IVR) integration.
• Performs:
C. Email & Messaging
o Protocol Conversion (HTTP to WSP/WTP).
• WAP-enabled email clients (e.g., Nokia Mail).
o Content Encoding/Decoding (WML compression).
• SMS/MMS over WAP (before smartphones).
o DNS Lookup & Caching (reduces latency).
D. Mobile Banking & Commerce
C. WAP Server (Origin Server)
• Secure transactions via WTLS encryption.
• Hosts WML/WMLScript content.
• Example: Checking bank balances, paying bills.
• Can be a standard web server with WAP support.
E. Location-Based Services (LBS)
D. WAP Protocol Stack (Layered Model)
• GPS/WAP integration for maps & navigation
Layer Function Protocols
3. Challenges & Decline of WAP
• Limited bandwidth (slow loading on 2G networks).
Application
Provides WAP apps & services. WML, WMLScript, WTA
Layer • Poor user experience (compared to modern HTML5 apps).
• Replaced by 3G/4G and smartphones (native apps, responsive web).
Session Layer Manages connections & sessions. WSP (Wireless Session Protocol)

Transaction WTP (Wireless Transaction 4. Modern Alternatives to WAP

Ensures reliable data transfer.
Layer Protocol) • HTML5 & Responsive Web Design (works on all devices).
• Progressive Web Apps (PWAs) (offline-capable web apps).
WTLS (Wireless Transport Layer
Security Layer Encrypts data for secure transmission.
Security) • 5G & IoT Protocols (MQTT, CoAP for lightweight data).

Q-Mobile IP is a communication protocol that allows mobile devices (like smartphones

Transport WDP (Wireless Datagram and laptops) to maintain the same IP address while moving between different networks (e.g.,
Handles data transmission.
Layer Protocol) from Wi-Fi to cellular). This ensures seamless connectivity without dropping active
sessions (e.g., VoIP calls, file downloads).
Interfaces with mobile networks
Network Layer Bearers (SMS, GPRS, 3G) 1. Key Components of Mobile IP
(GSM, CDMA).
Component Role
2. Key WAP Applications: WAP was widely used in early mobile internet applications,
including:
Mobile Node (MN) The device that changes networks (e.g., smartphone, tablet).
A. Mobile Web Browsing
• WML-based websites (lightweight alternative to HTML).
Component Role Type Description

A router in the home network that tracks the MN’s location and Mobile IPv4
Home Agent (HA) Uses Foreign Agents (FA) and co-located CoA.
forwards packets. (MIPv4)

A router in the visited network that assists the MN in Mobile IPv6 Eliminates FA; MN manages its own CoA. Supports route
Foreign Agent (FA)
communication. (MIPv6) optimization (avoids triangle routing).

4. Challenges in Mobile IP
Correspondent Node The remote device (e.g., server, another phone) communicating
(CN) with the MN. ✔ Triangle Routing Problem (in MIPv4)
• Packets take a longer path (CN → HA → FA → MN), increasing latency.
Care-of Address (CoA) A temporary IP assigned to the MN in the foreign network.
• Solution: Route Optimization (used in MIPv6).

✔ Handoff Latency
2. How Mobile IP Works (Step-by-Step)
Step 1: Agent Discovery:The Mobile Node (MN) detects whether it is in its home network or
• Delay during network switching may disrupt real-time apps (VoIP, gaming).
a foreign network by listening to Agent Advertisement Messages from Home Agents (HA) and
Foreign Agents (FA). • Solution: Fast Handovers for Mobile IPv6 (FMIPv6).
Step 2: Registration (When MN Moves to a Foreign Network) ✔ Security Risks
1. The MN obtains a Care-of Address (CoA) from the Foreign Agent (FA). • Fake registration requests (IP spoofing).
2. The MN sends a Registration Request to the Home Agent (HA) via the FA. • Solution: Authentication extensions (e.g., IPSec).
3. The HA updates its mobility binding table (associating the MN’s home IP with its CoA). 5. Applications of Mobile IP
4. The HA sends a Registration Reply to confirm. • Seamless roaming between Wi-Fi and cellular networks.
Step 3: Data Packet Routing (Triangle Routing Problem) • VoIP calls without dropping when switching networks.
• From CN to MN: • IoT devices moving across different wireless networks.
o The Correspondent Node (CN) sends packets to the MN’s home IP. Q-IEEE 802.11 is a family of wireless networking standards, commonly known as Wi-Fi,
o The Home Agent (HA) intercepts them and tunnels (encapsulates) them to that govern wireless local area networks (WLANs). These standards define how devices
the CoA. communicate over 2.4 GHz, 5 GHz, and 6 GHz radio bands, ensuring interoperability between
routers, smartphones, laptops, and IoT devices.
o The Foreign Agent (FA) decapsulates and forwards packets to the MN.
1. Key 802.11 Standards & Their Evolution
• From MN to CN:The MN sends packets directly to the CN (no tunneling needed).
Step 4: Handoff (When MN Moves to a New Network) Frequency Max
Standard Year Key Features
Band Speed
• The MN detects a new FA, obtains a new CoA, and re-registers with the HA.
• The HA updates the binding, and future packets are sent to the new CoA. 802.11
1997 2.4 GHz 2 Mbps First Wi-Fi standard (now obsolete).
3. Types of Mobile IP (Legacy)
 • Uses multiple antennas for higher throughput and better signal reliability.
Frequency Max
Standard Year Key Features
Band Speed • MU-MIMO (Multi-User MIMO) in Wi-Fi 5/6 allows simultaneous data streams to
multiple devices.
11 D. Security Protocols
802.11b 1999 2.4 GHz Popular but prone to interference.
Mbps
• WEP (Wired Equivalent Privacy) – Weak (easily hacked).

54 Faster but shorter range than • WPA (Wi-Fi Protected Access) – Improved security (TKIP encryption).
802.11a 1999 5 GHz
Mbps 802.11b. • WPA2 (AES-CCMP) – Current standard (used with 802.11n/ac).
• WPA3 – Latest (2018), stronger encryption, protects against brute-force attacks.
54
802.11g 2003 2.4 GHz Backward-compatible with 802.11b.
Mbps 3. Wi-Fi Network Architecture
• Access Point (AP) – Acts as a central hub (e.g., Wi-Fi router).
802.11n 600 MIMO (Multiple-Input
2009 2.4/5 GHz • Station (STA) – Any Wi-Fi-enabled device (phone, laptop).
(Wi-Fi 4) Mbps Multiple-Output), 40 MHz channels.
• Basic Service Set (BSS) – A single AP with connected STAs.
802.11ac
2013 5 GHz
3.5 Wider channels (80/160 MHz), • Extended Service Set (ESS) – Multiple APs forming a larger network (e.g., enterprise
(Wi-Fi 5) Gbps Beamforming, MU-MIMO. Wi-Fi).
4. Challenges in 802.11 Networks
802.11ax 9.6 OFDMA, BSS Coloring, TWT
✔ Interference (from other Wi-Fi networks, Bluetooth, microwaves).
2019 2.4/5/6 GHz
(Wi-Fi 6) Gbps (better efficiency in crowded areas).
✔ Limited Range (walls, obstacles weaken signals).
802.11be 2024 40 320 MHz channels, Multi-Link ✔ Congestion in Dense Areas (e.g., stadiums, airports).
2.4/5/6 GHz
(Wi-Fi 7) (Expected) Gbps Operation (MLO), 4K-QAM. ✔ Security Risks (eavesdropping, rogue APs).

2. Core Technologies in 802.11 5. Future of 802.11 (Wi-Fi 7 & Beyond)

A. Frequency Bands • Wi-Fi 7 (802.11be) will deliver:

• 2.4 GHz: Longer range but crowded (microwaves, Bluetooth interfere). o 40 Gbps speeds (for 8K streaming, VR/AR).

• 5 GHz: Faster speeds, less interference, shorter range. o Multi-Link Operation (MLO) – Simultaneous use of multiple bands.

• 6 GHz (Wi-Fi 6E): New band for ultra-low latency (no legacy device congestion). o Lower latency (gaming, industrial IoT).

B. Multiple Access Methods Q-Bluetooth is a short-range wireless communication technology designed for exchanging
data between devices over radio waves. It operates in the 2.4 GHz ISM band and is commonly
• DSSS (Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum) – Used in 802.11b.
used for:
• OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing) – Used in 802.11a/g/n/ac/ax.
• Wireless headphones & speakers
• OFDMA (Orthogonal FDMA) – Used in Wi-Fi 6 for multi-user efficiency.
• Smartwatches & fitness trackers
C. MIMO (Multiple-Input Multiple-Output)
• File transfers (e.g., Android to iPhone)
 • IoT devices (smart home gadgets)
Layer Function
How Bluetooth Works?
1. Frequency & Channels Profiles Defines device-specific functions (e.g., A2DP for audio).

• Uses 79 channels (in Bluetooth Classic) or 40 channels (Bluetooth Low Energy) in Bluetooth vs. Wi-Fi
the 2.4 GHz band.
Feature Bluetooth Wi-Fi
• Employs Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS) to avoid interference (hops 1600
times/sec).
Range Short (10-100m) Long (up to 100m+)
2. Device Pairing & Connection
• Discovery Mode: Devices broadcast their presence. Power Use Low (BLE: ultra-low) High
• Pairing: A secure link is established (PIN or NFC for authentication).
Speed Up to 3 Mbps (Classic) Up to 9.6 Gbps (Wi-Fi 6)
• Connection Types:
o Point-to-Point (e.g., phone to earbuds).
Use Case Peripheral devices Internet access
o Broadcast (1-to-many) (e.g., a speaker streaming to multiple headphones).
Applications of Bluetooth
o Mesh Networking (IoT devices relaying data).
✔ Wireless Audio (AirPods, speakers)
3. Data Transmission
✔ Smart Home (lights, locks)
✔ Health Tech (heart rate monitors)
• Bluetooth Classic (BR/EDR):
o Used for high-speed data (audio streaming, file transfers). ✔ Beacon Technology (retail ads, indoor navigation)
o Data Rate: Up to 3 Mbps (Enhanced Data Rate). Bluetooth Versions & Improvements
• Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE):
Version Key Feature
o Used for low-power devices (fitness bands, beacons).
o Data Rate: ~1 Mbps (optimized for battery life). Bluetooth 4.0 (2010) Introduced BLE for IoT.
4. Protocol Stack:Bluetooth communication follows a layered architecture:
Bluetooth 5.0 (2016) 2x speed, 4x range, 8x data capacity.
Layer Function
Bluetooth 5.2 (2020) LE Audio (better sound, multi-streaming).
Physical (Radio) Handles wireless signal transmission.
Bluetooth 5.3 (2021) Lower latency, better power efficiency.
Link Layer Manages connections (advertising, scanning).
Q-Adaptive Clustering in Mobile Wireless Networks
L2CAP Multiplexes data for higher layers. 1. Introduction:In mobile wireless networks (e.g., MANETs, VANETs, WSNs), clustering
organizes nodes into groups to improve scalability, energy efficiency, and routing
RFCOMM Emulates serial port for legacy apps. efficiency. Adaptive clustering dynamically adjusts cluster formation based on network
conditions such as node mobility, energy levels, and traffic load.
2. Key Challenges in Mobile Wireless Networks • Cross-Layer Optimization: Integrating with MAC/routing protocols.
• Node Mobility: Frequent topology changes disrupt cluster stability. • AI/ML Enhancements: Smarter CH selection using deep learning.
• Energy Constraints: Battery-powered nodes require energy-efficient clustering. Q-Data Management Issues in Mobile Computing:Mobile computing involves data
• Dynamic Traffic Load: Uneven data traffic affects cluster head (CH) selection. access, storage, and processing across devices with limited resources, intermittent connectivity,
and dynamic network conditions. Efficient data management is critical for performance, energy
• Scalability: Large networks need adaptive mechanisms to maintain efficiency. efficiency, and user experience. Below are the key challenges and solutions in mobile data
3. Adaptive Clustering Techniques:Adaptive clustering algorithms dynamically adjust: management.

• Cluster Head Selection: Based on metrics like residual energy, mobility, and 1. Key Data Management Challenges in Mobile Computing
connectivity. A. Limited Storage and Processing Power
• Cluster Size: Variable-sized clusters to balance load. • Mobile devices have constrained storage and CPU capabilities.
• Cluster Maintenance: Merging/splitting clusters as nodes move. • Impact: Large datasets cannot be stored or processed locally.
Popular Adaptive Clustering Approaches • Solutions:
1. Weight-Based Clustering (e.g., WCA - Weighted Clustering Algorithm) o Offloading: Move computation/storage to cloud/edge servers.
o Uses weights combining mobility, energy, degree, and distance. o Data Compression: Reduce storage needs before transmission.
o Adapts CH selection dynamically. o Lightweight Databases: Use SQLite or NoSQL (e.g., Realm, Couchbase Lite).
2. Fuzzy Logic-Based Clustering:Uses fuzzy rules to handle uncertainty (e.g., mobility, B. Intermittent Connectivity
energy).
• Wireless networks (Wi-Fi, cellular) suffer from disconnections.
o Example: LEACH-FL (Fuzzy Logic-enhanced LEACH).
• Impact: Data synchronization failures, inconsistent states.
3. Machine Learning-Based Clustering:Reinforcement learning (RL) or neural networks
• Solutions:
optimize CH selection.
o Adapts to changing network conditions. o Caching: Store frequently accessed data locally.

4. Mobility-Aware Clustering (e.g., MOBIC):Uses relative mobility metrics to form o Offline-First Apps: Sync when connection resumes (e.g., Firebase, AWS
stable clusters. AppSync).

5. Energy-Efficient Adaptive Clustering (e.g., EEHC):Adjusts CH role rotation based on o Conflict Resolution: Use timestamp-based or operational transformation (OT)
residual energy. methods.

4. Benefits of Adaptive Clustering C. Energy Efficiency

• Frequent data transfers drain battery.
• Improved Stability: Reduces reclustering overhead.
• Impact: Reduced device uptime.
• Energy Efficiency: Prolongs network lifetime.
• Solutions:
• Load Balancing: Distributes traffic evenly.
• Scalability: Handles large, dynamic networks. o Batching Updates: Send data in bulk instead of real-time.

5. Challenges & Future Directions o Adaptive Sync: Adjust sync frequency based on battery level.

• Overhead vs. Adaptability Tradeoff: Frequent updates may increase control overhead. o Low-Power Protocols: Use Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE) or MQTT-SN.
D. Security and Privacy Concerns:Mobile devices are vulnerable to attacks (e.g., • Serverless Mobile Backends: (e.g., Firebase, AWS Lambda) for auto-scaling
man-in-the-middle, data leaks).
Q-Resource management ensures optimal allocation of computing resources (virtual
• Impact: Unauthorized access to sensitive data. machines, containers, storage, bandwidth) to meet service-level agreements (SLAs) while
• Solutions: minimizing costs.

o Encryption: AES for local storage, TLS for transmission. Key Challenges:
• Dynamic Workloads: Fluctuations in demand (e.g., sudden spikes in web traffic).
o Access Control: Role-based permissions (OAuth, JWT).
• Multi-Tenancy: Multiple users sharing resources without interference.
o Federated Learning: Process data locally instead of sending raw data to servers.
• Heterogeneous Resources: Different VM/container configurations.
E. Data Consistency in Distributed Systems:Multiple devices may modify the same data.
• Energy Efficiency: Reducing power consumption in data centers.
• Impact: Conflicts, stale data.
• Solutions: Solutions:
• Elastic Resource Provisioning: Auto-scaling (e.g., AWS Auto Scaling, Kubernetes
o Eventual Consistency: Accept temporary inconsistencies (used in DynamoDB,
CouchDB). HPA).
• Virtualization & Containerization: Efficiently isolate workloads (VMware, Docker,
o Vector Clocks: Track causality in distributed updates.
Kubernetes).
o Blockchain for Auditing: Immutable logs for critical data.
• Resource Monitoring & Prediction: AI/ML-based forecasting (e.g., using time-series
F. Heterogeneous Data Sources:Mobile apps integrate data from sensors, cloud, and edge analysis).
devices.
• Green Computing: Dynamic voltage/frequency scaling (DVFS) for energy savings.
• Impact: Complex data aggregation and synchronization.
2. Task Scheduling in Cloud Computing-Task scheduling determines how workloads (jobs,
• Solutions: VMs, containers) are assigned to available resources to optimize performance metrics like:
o Middleware Layers: Use APIs (GraphQL, REST) for unified access. • Makespan (total execution time)
o Data Fusion Techniques: Combine sensor data intelligently (e.g., Kalman filters). • Response Time
G. Scalability for Large-Scale Mobile Systems • Cost Efficiency
• Millions of devices generate vast amounts of data. • Energy Consumption
• Impact: Server overload, latency. Scheduling Strategies:
• Solutions:
Approach Description Example Algorithms
o Edge Computing: Process data closer to the source (e.g., AWS Greengrass).
o Sharding & Partitioning: Distribute database load (e.g., MongoDB sharding). Predefined assignments
Round-Robin,
2. Emerging Trends in Mobile Data Management Static Scheduling (works for predictable
First-Come-First-Serve (FCFS)
workloads).
• Fog/Edge Computing: Reducing latency by processing data near devices.
• AI-Driven Data Optimization: Predictive caching using machine learning. Adjusts in real-time based on Shortest Job Next (SJN), Min-Min,
Dynamic Scheduling
workload changes. Max-Min
• 5G & Low-Latency Networks: Enabling real-time big data applications.
 Modern cloud systems combine these techniques for efficiency:
Approach Description Example Algorithms
• Kubernetes: Uses scheduling (e.g., bin packing) + auto-scaling (HPA) + load balancing
Uses optimization techniques Genetic Algorithm (GA), Particle (Ingress Controllers).
Metaheuristic-Based
for large-scale problems. Swarm Optimization (PSO) • Apache Mesos: Dynamic resource allocation for distributed systems.
• Cloud Providers (AWS/Azure/GCP): Auto-scaling groups + intelligent load balancers.
Machine Predicts optimal scheduling Reinforcement Learning (RL), Deep
Learning-Based using AI models. Q-Networks (DQN) 5. Future Trends
• Serverless Computing: Automatic scaling without VM management.
Challenges:
• Quantum Computing Optimization: Solving NP-hard scheduling problems faster.
• Deadline-Aware Scheduling: Ensuring tasks finish within SLAs.
• Federated Learning for Resource Allocation: Decentralized AI-driven optimization.
• Workflow Scheduling: Managing interdependent tasks (e.g., in scientific workflows).
• Sustainable Cloud Computing: Reducing carbon footprint via smart scheduling.
• Multi-Objective Optimization: Balancing cost, performance, and energy.
Q-1. Cloud Architecture Model:Cloud architecture defines how cloud services are
3. Load Balancing in Cloud Computing:Load balancing distributes workloads across servers
structured, deployed, and managed. The key models include:
to prevent bottlenecks and maximize resource utilization.
A. Front-End & Back-End Architecture
Load Balancing Techniques:
• Front-End: The client side (user interface, web/mobile apps, APIs).
Type Description Examples
• Back-End: Cloud infrastructure (servers, storage, databases, virtualization, security).

Static Load Round Robin, Weighted • Communication: Typically via REST APIs, WebSockets, or messaging queues.
Fixed rules for distribution.
Balancing Round Robin B. Layered Cloud Architecture
1. Infrastructure Layer (IaaS):Virtualized resources (compute, storage, networking).
Dynamic Load Adapts based on real-time metrics Least Connections,
Balancing (CPU, memory, network). Throttled Algorithm o Example: AWS EC2, Azure Virtual Machines.
2. Platform Layer (PaaS):Development tools, middleware, databases.
Centralized Load Amazon ELB (Elastic Load
Single controller manages distribution. o Example: Google App Engine, Heroku.
Balancing Balancer)
3. Application Layer (SaaS):Ready-to-use software applications.
Distributed Load Google’s Maglev, o Example: Salesforce, Microsoft 365.
Multiple nodes cooperate for balancing.
Balancing Microsoft’s Ananta
C. Distributed Cloud Architecture:Resources are spread across multiple locations (edge, fog,
Advanced Approaches: central cloud).
• Improves latency and fault tolerance.
• AI-Driven Load Balancing: Uses ML to predict traffic patterns.
• Example: AWS Outposts, Google Anthos.
• Fog/Edge Load Balancing: Distributes tasks between cloud and edge devices.
• Serverless Load Balancing: Auto-scaling in FaaS (e.g., AWS Lambda, Azure D. Serverless Architecture:Event-driven, auto-scaling (no server management).
Functions). • Example: AWS Lambda, Azure Functions.
4. Integration of Resource Management, Scheduling, and Load Balancing E. Microservices Architecture:Cloud apps are broken into small, independent services.
 • Example: Kubernetes-managed Docker containers.
Type Description Examples
2. Types of Cloud Computin:Cloud computing is categorized based on deployment and
service models. CaaS (Containers as a AWS ECS, Google Kubernetes
Manages containerized apps.
A. By Deployment Model Service) Engine (GKE)

Type Description Use Cases Examples

3. Key Considerations in Cloud Architecture
Shared infrastructure, Startups, scalable AWS, Azure,
Public Cloud • Scalability: Auto-scaling (horizontal/vertical).
pay-as-you-go. web apps. Google Cloud
• Security: Encryption, IAM, Zero Trust.
Dedicated infrastructure Enterprises with VMware, • Cost Optimization: Spot instances, reserved instances.
Private Cloud
(on-premises or hosted). security needs. OpenStack
• Disaster Recovery: Multi-region backups.
• Compliance: GDPR, HIPAA, SOC 2.
Combines public + private Businesses needing AWS Outposts,
Hybrid Cloud
clouds. flexibility. Azure Stack 4. Future Trends
• Edge Cloud: Faster processing near data sources.
Uses multiple cloud Avoiding vendor AWS + Azure +
Multi-Cloud • AI-Driven Cloud Automation: Self-healing architectures.
providers. lock-in. GCP
• Quantum Cloud Computing: High-performance cloud quantum processing.
Community Shared by organizations with Government, IBM Cloud for • Green Cloud: Energy-efficient data centers.
Cloud common goals. healthcare. Government
Q-Security and Fault Tolerance in Mobile Computing
B. By Service Model
1. Security in Mobile Computing
Type Description Examples Mobile devices are vulnerable to:
• Data breaches (unsecured Wi-Fi, malware)
IaaS (Infrastructure as Provides virtualized computing AWS EC2, Azure VMs, Google
• Device theft/loss (physical access risks)
a Service) resources. Compute Engine
• App vulnerabilities (poorly coded apps leaking data)
PaaS (Platform as a Offers development tools + Heroku, Google App Engine, Key Security Measures:
Service) runtime environment. AWS Elastic Beanstalk
• Encryption (AES for storage, TLS for transmission)
SaaS (Software as a Delivers ready-to-use • Multi-factor authentication (biometrics + OTP)
Gmail, Slack, Zoom
Service) applications.
• Secure sandboxing (app isolation)
• Remote wipe capabilities
FaaS (Function as a Serverless event-driven
AWS Lambda, Azure Functions
Service) functions. 2. Fault Tolerance in Mobile Computing
Mobile systems must handle failures due to:
 • Intermittent connectivity (network drops) • Shuffle & Sort: The system groups all map outputs by key.
• Battery/power failures • Processing: A reduce function combines values for each key.
• Hardware/software crashes o Example (Word Count):
Fault-Tolerant Techniques: ▪ Input to Reduce: [("hello", [1,1]), ("world", [1])]
• Data replication (local + cloud sync) ▪ Reduce Output: [("hello", 2), ("world", 1)]
• Checkpointing (save/restore app state) Why Use MapReduce?
• Self-healing networks (automatic re-routing) ✔ Scalability: Processes petabytes of data across thousands of machines.
• Graceful degradation (reduce functionality instead of crashing) ✔ Fault Tolerance: If a server fails, work is reassigned automatically.
✔ Parallel Processing: Multiple map and reduce tasks run simultaneously.
Integration for Robust Mobile Systems
✔ Simple for Developers: Write just two functions (map + reduce), and the system handles
Combining strong security with fault tolerance ensures: distribution.
✔ Reliability (continuous operation despite failures)
✔ Privacy (data protected even if device is compromised)
Real-World Example: Counting Words in Wikipedia

✔ User trust (seamless, secure experiences) Step Action Example

Example: A mobile banking app uses:
Input Split Wikipedia dump → 1000 chunks [chunk1: "big data...", chunk2: "hadoop..."]
• TLS encryption (security)
• Offline transaction caching (fault tolerance) Map Extract words → (word, 1) ("big",1), ("data",1), ("hadoop",1)
Future Directions
• AI-driven anomaly detection for security Shuffle Group by word ("big",[1,1,1]), ("data",[1,1])

• Blockchain-based fault recovery

Reduce Sum counts ("big",3), ("data",2)
Q-MapReduce is a programming model and distributed processing framework designed to
handle massive datasets across thousands of servers efficiently. It was introduced by Google Output Final word counts Saved to HDFS/Cloud Storage
and later popularized by Apache Hadoop.
How MapReduce Works (Simplified)MapReduce breaks down big data processing into two
main phases: Where is MapReduce Used?
1. Map Phase • Search Engines (Google, Bing) – Indexing web pages.
• Input: Data is split into smaller chunks (e.g., lines of a log file). • Log Analysis (Facebook, Twitter) – Tracking user activity.
• Processing: A map function processes each chunk and emits key-value pairs. • Machine Learning – Preprocessing large datasets.
o Example (Word Count): • Scientific Computing – DNA sequencing, climate modeling.
▪ Input: "hello world hello" LimitationsBatch Processing Only (Not real-time like Spark Streaming).
▪ Map Output: [("hello", 1), ("world", 1), ("hello", 1)] Slower for Iterative Jobs (Due to disk I/O between phases).

2. Reduce Phase
Q-1. AODV (Ad-hoc On-Demand Distance Vector)AODV is a reactive 3. Route Maintenance (Link Reversal):If a link fails, nodes adjust their heights to
(on-demand) routing protocol, meaning it establishes routes only when needed. It combines re-establish a valid DAG.
features of DSDV (Destination Sequence Numbers) and DSR (Dynamic Source Routing) but o Uses temporal ordering to avoid loops.
eliminates the need for source routing.
4. Multiple Routes:Maintains multiple paths for robustness.
Key Components:
Advantages:Minimizes control overhead.
1. Route Discovery (RREQ & RREP):When a source node needs a route to a destination,
• Highly adaptive to mobility.
it broadcasts a Route Request (RREQ).
• Supports multicast efficiently.
o Intermediate nodes forward the RREQ and set up reverse paths.
o The destination (or a node with a fresh route) sends a Route Reply (RREP) back Disadvantages:Complex due to height-based routing.
via the reverse path. • Not widely implemented in real systems.
2. Route Maintenance (RERR):If a link break is detected, a Route Error (RERR) is sent 3. DSDV (Destination-Sequenced Distance Vector)DSDV is a proactive
back to affected sources. (table-driven) protocol based on the Bellman-Ford algorithm, with enhancements to avoid loops
o The source re-initiates route discovery if needed. using sequence numbers.

3. Sequence Numbers:Ensures loop freedom and freshness of routes (higher sequence Key Components:
numbers indicate newer routes). 1. Routing Tables:Each node maintains a table with:
4. Local Repair (Optional):Intermediate nodes may attempt to repair broken links locally. ▪ Destination address
Advantages:Low overhead (no periodic updates). ▪ Next hop
• Scalable for medium-sized networks. ▪ Hop count
• Adapts quickly to topology changes. ▪ Sequence number (assigned by the destination)
DisadvantagesRoute discovery latency. 2. Periodic & Triggered Updates:Nodes broadcast their full routing tables periodically.
• Broadcast storms in high-mobility scenarios. o Triggered updates are sent when a significant change occurs.
Q- TORA (Temporally Ordered Routing Algorithm)TORA is a hybrid (reactive + 3. Sequence Numbers:Ensures loop freedom and freshness of routes.
proactive) protocol designed for highly dynamic networks. It uses a link reversal algorithm to
o Higher sequence numbers override older entries.
maintain loop-free routes and focuses on localized route repairs.
4. Two Update Modes:
Key Components:
o Full Dump: Sends the entire routing table.
1. Directed Acyclic Graph (DAG) Creation:Routes are represented as a DAG with the
destination at the top. o Incremental Update: Sends only changes (reduces overhead).
o Nodes maintain height metrics (based on logical timestamps). Advantages:Guaranteed loop-free paths.
2. Route Discovery (QRY, UPD, CLR): • Simple and easy to implement.
o QRY (Query): Broadcast to find a route. Disadvantages:High overhead (due to periodic updates).
o UPD (Update): Propagates height assignments. • Not scalable for large or highly mobile networks.
o CLR (Clear): Resets invalid routes. Comparison Summary
Feature AODV (Reactive) TORA (Hybrid) DSDV (Proactive) How it works:GSR is similar to traditional link-state routing but optimized for wireless
networks.
Route On-demand • Each node maintains a routing table with:
QRY/UPD/CLR Periodic updates
Discovery (RREQ/RREP)
o Destination node
o Next hop
Moderate (local High (full table
Overhead Low (only when needed)
repairs) updates) o Number of hops
o Timestamp of the last update
Loop Handling Sequence numbers Height-based DAG Sequence numbers
• Nodes periodically exchange link-state information with neighbors, and update their
tables accordingly.
High (localized
Scalability Medium Low (due to updates)
repairs) Advantages:Routes are immediately available for data transmission.
• Suitable for networks with frequent communication.
Mobility Excellent (quick Poor (slow
Good (but high latency) Disadvantages:Overhead due to frequent updates.
Handling repairs) convergence)
• Less scalable in highly dynamic environments.
Q- 1. DSR (Dynamic Source Routing)
Comparison Table
Type: Reactive (on-demand) routing protocol
Feature DSR GSR
How it works:DSR uses source routing, meaning the entire route to the destination is
included in the packet header. Type Reactive Proactive

• It maintains two main mechanisms: Routing Info On-demand, source routing Periodic table updates

1. Route Discovery: When a node wants to send data and doesn't know the route, it Overhead Low (if few routes used) High (due to updates)
broadcasts a Route Request (RREQ). Each node that receives it appends its own
address and forwards it until it reaches the destination, which replies with a Route Good for small/medium
Scalability Less scalable in high mobility
Reply (RREP). networks

2. Route Maintenance: If a route is broken (e.g., a link failure), an error message is Route
Only when needed Precomputed, always available
sent back to the source, and a new route discovery is initiated if needed. Discovery

Advantages:No need for periodic updates. Q-Quality of Service (QoS) in Mobile Ad-Hoc Networks (MANETs) refers to the ability
of the network to provide differentiated services to different types of traffic (e.g., voice, video,
• Efficient in networks with low mobility.
data) while meeting performance requirements such as bandwidth, delay, jitter, and packet loss.
Disadvantages:Large headers due to source routing.
Unlike traditional wired networks, MANETs face unique challenges due to:
• Route discovery delay. • Dynamic topology (frequent link changes).
2. GSR (Global State Routing) • Limited bandwidth & shared medium.
Type: Proactive (table-driven) routing protocol • Energy constraints (battery-powered nodes).
• No centralized control.
1. QoS Parameters in MANETs B. QoS-Enabled MAC Layer Protocols
The key QoS metrics include: • IEEE 802.11e (EDCA – Enhanced Distributed Channel Access):
• Bandwidth: Available data transmission capacity. o Prioritizes traffic into Access Categories (ACs) (Voice, Video, Best Effort,
Background).
• Delay (Latency): Time taken for a packet to travel from source to destination.
o Uses AIFS (Arbitration Inter-Frame Space) and CW (Contention
• Jitter: Variation in packet arrival times (critical for real-time applications like VoIP).
Window) adjustments for QoS.
• Packet Loss Rate: Percentage of packets lost in transmission.
C. Resource Reservation Techniques
• Throughput: Effective data transfer rate.
• RSVP (Resource Reservation Protocol) – Adapted for MANETs (MRSVP – Mobile
• Reliability: Probability of successful packet delivery. RSVP).
2. Challenges in Providing QoS in MANETs • INSIGNIA (In-band Signaling for QoS Support) – Uses in-band signaling for dynamic
A. Dynamic Network Topology QoS adaptation.

• Nodes move randomly, causing frequent route changes. D. Cross-Layer QoS Optimization
• Combines MAC, routing, and transport layers for better QoS.
• QoS routes may break, requiring constant re-computation.
• Example: QoS-aware routing protocols that interact with MAC scheduling.
B. Limited Resources
• Wireless bandwidth is shared among all nodes. E. Admission Control Mechanisms
• Ensures new flows are admitted only if QoS can be guaranteed.
• Battery constraints affect long-term QoS guarantees.
• Example: CACP (Contention-Aware Admission Control Protocol).
C. Hidden & Exposed Terminal Problems
• Hidden Terminal: Two nodes out of range of each other transmit simultaneously, 4. Applications Requiring QoS in MANETs
causing collisions. • Real-time multimedia streaming (VoIP, video conferencing).
• Exposed Terminal: A node refrains from transmitting unnecessarily due to overhearing • Emergency & military communications (low latency, high reliability).
another transmission.
• Sensor networks (e.g., health monitoring, where delay is critical).
D. Lack of Centralized Control
5. Future Research & Improvements
• No fixed infrastructure means QoS must be managed in a distributed manner.
• Machine Learning-based QoS adaptation for dynamic conditions.
E. Interference & Contention
• Hybrid QoS models combining proactive and reactive approaches.
• Multiple nodes compete for the same channel, degrading QoS.
• Energy-efficient QoS mechanisms for battery-constrained devices.
3. QoS Approaches in MANETs
Q-A Mobile Ad-Hoc Network (MANET) is a self-configuring, decentralized, wireless
A. QoS Routing Protocols network where nodes (devices like smartphones, laptops, or IoT devices) communicate without
• DSR (Dynamic Source Routing) – On-demand, but lacks QoS guarantees. relying on a fixed infrastructure (like routers or access points).

• AODV (Ad-hoc On-Demand Distance Vector) – Extensions like QAODV • Key Features:
(QoS-AODV) support bandwidth and delay constraints. o Dynamic Topology: Nodes move freely, causing frequent changes in network
• OLSR (Optimized Link State Routing) – Proactive, can incorporate QoS metrics. structure.
 o Multi-hop Routing: Data packets may pass through multiple intermediate nodes • Classroom & Conference Networking: Students or attendees share files without
to reach the destination. internet.
o No Centralized Control: No fixed base stations; all nodes participate in routing. • Collaborative Robotics: Robots in factories or warehouses communicate via MANETs.
o Limited Resources: Constrained by battery power, bandwidth, and processing H. Entertainment & Gaming
capabilities.
• Multiplayer Mobile Gaming: Devices connect directly without servers.
2. Applications of MANETs
• Outdoor Music Festivals: Temporary ad-hoc networks for crowd coordination.
A. Military & Defense
3. Challenges in MANETs
• Battlefield Communications: Soldiers, drones, and vehicles form ad-hoc networks for
Despite their advantages, MANETs face several challenges:
real-time data sharing.
• Security Risks: Vulnerable to attacks like eavesdropping, spoofing, and DoS attacks.
• Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs): Drones collaborate in surveillance and
reconnaissance missions. • Routing Overhead: Frequent topology changes require constant route updates.

B. Emergency & Disaster Recovery • Energy Consumption: Battery-powered devices need efficient power management.

• Search & Rescue Operations: MANETs help first responders communicate in areas • Scalability Issues: Performance degrades as the number of nodes increases.
with no cellular coverage (earthquakes, floods). • Interference & Congestion: Shared wireless medium leads to collisions.
• Disaster Relief Networks: Temporary communication setups in crisis zones. 4. Future of MANETs
C. Vehicular Ad-Hoc Networks (VANETs) • Integration with 5G & 6G: MANETs will complement next-gen networks for better
• Vehicle-to-Vehicle (V2V) & Vehicle-to-Infrastructure (V2I) Communication: coverage.

o Collision avoidance systems. • AI & Machine Learning: Adaptive routing and self-healing networks.

o Traffic management & real-time updates. • Blockchain for Security: Decentralized trust management in MANETs.

D. Personal Area Networks (PANs) & IoT • Drone Swarms & Autonomous Systems: Large-scale MANETs for smart cities and
defense.
• Smart Homes & Wearables: Devices like smartwatches, sensors, and home automation
systems form MANETs.
• Bluetooth & Wi-Fi Direct: Peer-to-peer file sharing, gaming, and device pairing.
E. Healthcare & Telemedicine
• Remote Patient Monitoring: Wearable sensors transmit health data to doctors in real
time.
• Emergency Medical Response: MANETs assist in ambulances and remote clinics.
F. Environmental Monitoring
• Wildlife Tracking: Sensors on animals relay data to researchers.
• Forest Fire Detection: Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) form MANETs to monitor fire
risks.
G. Education & Collaborative Work