LANGUAGE AND COMMUNICATION

UNIT 1: PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION

▪ Definition of Communication
▪ Elements of communication
▪ Encoding and decoding messages
▪ Model/Theories of communication
▪ Characteristics of Human Communication
▪ Types of communication
▪ Line of communication in an organization
▪ Barriers to effective communication

1.1 DEFINITION OF COMMUNICATION

- It is a process of sharing or transferring or exchanging messages from
a source to a receiver to achieve a desired response (Gibson & Hanna,
1999, p.3).
- It is the transmission of information, ideas, and feelings in people with
the aim of informing, influencing, and initiating activities (Chikoti,
2008, p.1)
- It is any process in which people, through the use of symbols, verbally
and/or nonverbally, consciously or not consciously, intentionally or
unintentionally, generate meanings (information, ideas, feelings and
perceptions) within and across various contexts, cultures, channels,
and media (Hybels & Weaver II, p.5)

1.2 ELEMENTS/COMPONENTS OF COMMUNICATION PROCESS

a. Source:
The source initiates the communication process by encoding a thought
or idea to be put across.
b. Message
- Is the idea, thought or feeling that a person wishes to communicate to
another person/group
- The message is the content of the interaction
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 - Includes symbols (words and phrases), facial expressions, bodily
movements, gestures, touch, tone of voice
- Message becomes effective if it is interpreted to meet the intent and
purpose

c. Channel
- It is also known as a medium
- Is the means by which a message moves from the source to the
receiver.
- The message reaches the sources by traveling in a channel eg
airwaves, print, sound waves

d. Receiver
Is the intended target of the message i.e. the destination
The receiver decodes the message from the sender. To decode is to
interpret the message or assigning meaning to the message.
The receiver decodes the message through motor skills and senses ie
listening, thinking, reading, etc.
e. Feedback
- Refers to the receiver’s verbal and nonverbal response the message
sent by the source
- Feedback tells the source that the message was receive as intended or
otherwise
- It is a reverse process of communication hence the receiver becomes
the sender and the sender becomes the receiver
- Where there is no feedback, communication is incomplete.
f. Noise
- Noise is any interference in the communication process
- It affects the encoding and decoding processes
- Noise can be
 Physical: it keeps the message from being heard eg sound of
passing cars while teaching; someone dancing outside the
classroom, someone standing too close to you
 Psychological: this is mental noise. It occurs when the sender
or receiver is distracted by something in the mind eg mind
wandering

1.3 CODE, ENCODING AND DECODING OF A MESSAGE

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Codes-there are verbal codes and nonverbal codes.
- Verbal codes consist of symbols and their grammatical
arrangements. Words are used here. All languages are codes because
they use symbols.
- Nonverbal codes consist of symbols that are not words, including
bodily movements, your use of space and time, your clothing and other
sounds other than words.
Encoding refers to the activities that a source goes through to translate
thoughts and ideas into a form that may be perceived by the senses. For
instance, when you have something to say, your brain and your tongue
usually work in concert to form spoken words. Similarly, for those who
cannot speak and use verbal cues to communicate, their brain and other
body parts work together in order to produce patterns that can be
understood. Encoding in a communication setting can take place one or
more times. For example, in a face-to-face conversation, you as the
speaker, encode thoughts into words. On the other hand, when you
communicate over the mobile phone, this phase is repeated but the
phone subsequently encodes sound waves into electrical energy.
Decoding (Receiving the message)-The decoding process is the
opposite of the encoding process. It consists of activities that translate or
interpret physical messages into a form that has eventual meaning for a
receiver. As you read this module, you are decoding a message if you are
listening to music while reading these lines, you are decoding two
messages. In the communication process, the Receiver is the target or
destination of the message. This can be a listener, a reader, in other
words an audience. The receiver retranslates or decodes the message
into forms that are useful to him/her. Because the receiver undergoes this
exercise, he or she is also known as a Decoder – one who assigns
meaning to the message.

1.4 BASIC COMMUNICATION THEORIES

- A theory is a set of ideas that are meant to explain why things happen
the way they do
- Theories give us insights into what happens in the process of
exchanging information or messages from one end to the other.
- There are many theories that attempt to explain communication
behaviour. We look at three

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 a. The Mathematical Theory of Communication
- Was developed by Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver in 1949
- It asserts that communication is a linear and sequential phenomenon
ie the a transmitter sends a signal through a channel
- The most important component in this theory is the noise source,
which may introduce noise into the channel
- The receiver picks up or collects the received signals and conducts it to
its destination
- This theory encourages us to ask questions about how messages are
sent from one end to another and if there are ways of dealing with
noise or its effects

b. The Interaction Model

- In this theory, one person sends a message to a second person who
receives it and responds with another message.
- Communication here is a conversation between two people who are
interacting and taking turns in sending and receiving the messages.
- The receiver cannot return a message until the speaker’s messages is
received.

c. The Transaction Model

- This model asserts that communication processes simultaneously send
and receive messages.
- Sending and receiving are no longer separate activities, and they do
not occur in isolation
- In this model, people are continually sending and receiving messages;
they cannot avoid communication; there is no need to take turns.

1.5 CHARACTERISTICS OF HUMAN COMMUNICATION

a. Whenever communication takes place, there a speaker and a listener
or a writer and a reader who must interact
b. The speaker has a purpose for speaking while the listener is interested
in discovering the purpose
c. It is possible for communication to have both intentional and
unintentional results and effects (joke or insult? Love proposal or
sexual harassment?)

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 d. Giving each other turns. Communication involves both the source and
the receiver.
e. Communication involves the use of symbols eg movement, gestures,
etc which represent the thoughts and feelings of the speaker. To some
extent, both the source and the receiver understand the meanings of
these symbols

1.6 TYPES OF HUMAN COMMUNICATION

a. Verbal Communication
- This is communication that uses words
- It can either be oral or written
1. Oral
 Is communication by word of mouth through language
 It largely used in face to face interactions, on the phone,
radio, tv, at meetings, assemblies or public rallies

Advantages of Oral Communication

- Feedback is immediate hence you can deal with misunderstandings
and mistakes on spot.
- The setting contributes to the way the message will be understood
(oral messages have an aura of the informal – consider an oral
reprimand; the setting is part of the message eg bar, office
- The paralanguage helps to make the message clearer. Paralanguage
includes such things as body movement, tone of voice etc
- It is effective in problem solving and establishing interpersonal
relationships
- Does not require high literacy skills

Disadvantages
- Is transitory in nature ie there is no permanent record that one can
refer to in the future
- Its effectiveness depends on the mood of the listener at that time.

2. Written Communication
 Is the type of communication that uses written material eg
memos, notes, letters, reports, minutes, circulars,
newsletters, leaflets

Advantages of Written communication

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 - It provides a permanent record. This makes it possible to verify
essential information such as dates, time, figures, names. It is for this
reason that people insist on having written information to confirm oral
messages for authenticity, authority and validity
- It can reach distant places where people cannot be reached through
oral communication
- It can be read at the convenience of the recipient ie when one is at a
more receptive mood and the message can be read over and over
again.
- People tend to remember better what they see in print
- Written messages are better structured by composers ie words and
phrases are carefully chosen than in oral communication. There is time
to edit and proofread the work

Disadvantages
- The message might not get the deserved attention e.g. when sent to
busy executives
- Feedback is slow hence it is not good for solving problems
- There are no paralinguistic features to aid understanding (the message
may thus not be understood as intended)
- Language errors may make the message vague or make
communication impossible. Errors could be such things as bad
grammar, spellings, poor punctuation etc)
- There is a risk of confidential information falling into wrong hands or
received at the wrong time.
- Requires high literacy skills

b. Nonverbal Communication
- It refers to interpersonal communication that takes place without use
of spoken words or a language.
- It looks at behaviours of people other than the use of words
- The behaviors have socially shared meaning and have potential to
elicit feedback
- Nonverbal communication can be used independently or together with
verbal communication to complement the words eg saying “no” while
shaking your head
- When in a conversation, there is need for evidence that those involved
in communication are attending and responding to each other.
- This evidence include the following
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 i. Gestures: refer to body movements that express an emotion or
an idea. Eg nodding, shaking your head to show aapproval or
disagreement; touching your ear to show yu haven’t heard;
putting a finger across the mouth to stop noise; raising a hand in
class/football pitch; dropping a hand to offer a seat
ii. Eye contact: the eyes are one of the most reliable indicators of
emotions. People can read messages from your eyes eg can tell
when one is honest or lying. Lack of eye contact can also show
that one is disinterested; it can also reveal confusion in the
audience
iii. Posture: this is how we carry our bodies ie how we walk, sit and
stand. Eg dragging your feet could indicate that you are tired,
depressed, lazy or sick
iv. Dressing and grooming: the way one dresses tells a story. It is
important to dress to suit the occasion.
v. Use of space
vi. Facial expressions: these are nonverbal cues on the speaker’s
face eg: smile to show happiness; frown to show sadness/anger
vii. Pictures: Are attractive to the eye; they communicate in an
instant and comprehensive manner to the illiterate eg toilet
symbols
Advantages of Pictorial Communication
 Pictures are international
 Pictures are instantaneous in their impact
 Are comprehensible to the illiterate
 Easily remembered

Disadvantages: They cannot be used in the following instances

 Reasoned arguments
 Detailed instructions
 Exact information
 Definition
 Records of discussions
 Legal matters etc

1.7 BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

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a) Noise In the context of communication, noise is anything that
interferes with or distorts our ability to send or receive messages. A
little noise might pass unnoticed, while too much noise might prevent
the message from reaching its destination. In the communication
process, noise comes in three forms: external, internal, and
semantic. a) External noise: This is also known as physical noise. It
comes from the environment and keeps the message from being heard
or understood. For example, your discussion with a classmate can be
interrupted by a group of students talking loudly, a helicopter flying
overheard or by a sound of cars passing by. External noise does not
always come from sound. It could also come from distracting sights like
people dancing outside your classroom, from unusual behaviour like
someone standing too close for comfort or you could be standing and
talking to someone in the hot sun and become so uncomfortable that
you can hardly concentrate. b) Internal noise-This is also known as
psychological noise and it occurs in the minds of the sender/receivers
when their thoughts or feelings are focussed on something else other
than the communication at hand. This kind of noise usually occurs
when the senders-receivers are distracted by something. For example,
during lectures, you as a student might not hear what is being
presented because you are thinking about lunch; you fail to
concentrate because you are thinking about a loved one or you so
much pre-occupied with something that interferes with the way you
receive, interpret or provide feedback to messages. c) Semantic
noise-This is also known as linguistic noise or cultural barrier. It occurs
when different people have different meanings for different words and
phrases. Language - misunderstandings are common among people
who speak the same language, so it's not surprising that people from
different cultural and linguistic backgrounds face communication

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 barriers. Anything from the mispronunciation of a word to a lack of
specificity can lead to misunderstandings.

b) Listener’s attitudes; Attitudes in listening Attitudes refer to beliefs or

feelings we have about ourselves, other people, ideas and events. In
other words, it is a state of mind about something or someone.
Naturally, an audience with a hostile or apathetic attitude, is most
likely to experience listening problems. A good example is in a class
where students have a negative attitude about a topic, subject or
tutor; listening is likely to be negatively affected.

c) Cultural barriers to listening Cultural barriers in language,

accent, dialect. Cultural barriers readily manifest in language, dialect
or accent differences. It is thus important to be sensitive to such
differences to be able to listen effectively. The obligation 60 to
overcome such barriers rests with the speaker as well. Native speakers
of English, for instance, find it difficult to listen to non- native speakers
due to accents. It requires more concentration to listen to overall
content rather than trying to understand each specific word that is
said. Even within the same linguistic community, the use of certain
words in English is considered rude by those in other cultures. For
instance, to some cultures “hey” is a greeting similar to “hi” or “hello.

1.8 LINE OF COMMUNICATION IN AN ORGANIZATION

Business communication is the exchange of ideas or imaginations,
information, perception, and understanding among people within or outside
an organization using verbal and non-verbal means.
The above definition clearly shows that business communication takes place
in organization to facilitate achievement of goals of organizations. Edgar
Schein (1965, p8) defines an organization as the ’rational coordination of the
activities of a number of people for the achievement of some common
explicit purpose or goal through division of labour, function and a hierarchy
of authority and responsibility’.
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The following are some of the roles of Communication in an Organization:
1) It enables individuals and departments to coordinate and work towards
achieving common goals; 2) It is a way of sharing knowledge which is
necessary for motivation and accomplishment of different tasks; 3) It is used
as a tool for conflict management and resolution; 4) It allows an organization
to interact and relate with its stakeholders.
Contexts of Business Communication: Business or organizational
communication has two main contexts namely Internal1 and external2.
Internal communication has formal and informal channels of
communication (Chikoti, 2008, and Temple & Kavanna, 2000).

Formal Communication Channels

These are accepted channels or means through which messages pass from
senders to recipients within an organization. There are two types of formal
channels; vertical communication channel and horizontal communication
channel.
Vertical Communication Channels move messages along a chain of
command. Two forms of vertical communication in an organization exist.
These are Downward vertical communication and upward vertical
communication.
Downward vertical communication sends messages from superiors to
subordinates3.
Upward vertical communication sends messages from subordinates to
superiors4.
Pitfalls or problems of Vertical Communication channels

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Internal communication occurs within an organization. It involves all communication networks within the organization which may include
various levels of the hierarchy, departments, branches or individuals. Memos, reports, notices, manuals, interviews, forms, grapevine, formal
and informal meetings, consultations, emails, intranet, and telephones are some of the channels used in internal communication.

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External communication involves all communication by the organization with the general public, or other public or other organizations. Some
of the channels of external communication include the mass media, press or news releases, advertising, letters, company reports, local or
community participation, and conferences.

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Subordinates benefit from this channel in the following ways: 1) It is a way of getting motivation through understanding what is expected of
them; 2) Lack of downward communication creates insecurity and job dissatisfaction; 3) It is a means of fulfilling personal and social of
subordinates; 4) It is used for providing information on organizational policies and procedures

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Superiors benefit from this channel as follows: 1) It is a tool for evaluating how the organization is achieving objectives; 2) Superiors base
decisions on feedback from subordinates; 3) It a channel through which superiors know about personal and social needs of their subordinates;
4) It is a means of getting proposals from subordinates
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  Messages get distorted in a long chain of command
 Sometimes messages are overloaded and workers are too busy to
spare time for processing or digesting the meaning of such messages.
 Middle managers act as gatekeepers and sometimes withhold
messages both from the top and the bottom.
Ways of improving Vertical communication channels
 Organizing departmental meeting frequently. At meetings members
have an opportunity of understanding each other better and this
improves their interpersonal communication.
 Making follow ups on communication sent. This is needed because
some people may withhold or ‘sit on’ messages to be delivered to the
recipient.

Horizontal Communication Channels

They are also called lateral communication channels. In these channels,
information is shared between or among people of the same rank or level or
people of different departments. Two forms of horizontal communication
channels called direct horizontal communication and indirect (diagonal)
horizontal communication exist.
In Direct Horizontal Communication5, information is shared between or
among people of the same rank or level and the people may be of the same
department or different departments.
Indirect Horizontal Communication or Diagonal Communication6
occurs when people of different ranks and lines of command share
information. It may happen where the two are personally related and can
freely seek advice, guidance, and opinions on official matters from each
other. To avoid conflict between bosses, a lot of goodwill and diplomacy is
needed in this form of communication.
The following are some of the problems with Horizontal
Communication: 1) There is rivalry between people of the same rank or
level because of competition for promotion; 2) For some big organizations,
there could be physical or geographical barriers which would make such
meetings difficult since some officers may be in different localities; 3) Some

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This form of communication is important because of the following: 1) It encourages unity among members in the organization; 2) Members
feel free to consult colleagues of the same level on how certain tasks are done other than consulting their seniors or juniors; 3) Effects of
boredom and monotony are minimized; 4) Employees of the same department can use this channel to brief each other during change of shift;
5) It can be used to resolve job related conflicts between departments
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Interdepartmental horizontal communication enables people in the same organization to work together in achieving goals of the organization.
However, this can also be a source of conflicts and rumours if the concerned parties discuss personalities instead of discussing work related
issues.
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employees may be very specialized in their jobs and hence will have little in
common with their colleagues.
Ways of improving Horizontal Communication Channels
 Creating and encouraging opportunities to meet through
interdepartmental meetings, organizational canteens or restaurant
and get together
 Encouraging members to work together through joint tasks, and
committees.
 Sharing of organizational resources like offices, computers, ans cars.

Informal Communication Channels

These are means through which organizational messages are communicated
without following established formal channels 7.
There are two main types of informal communication channels: bypassing
and grapevine.
Bypassing arises where one or more members in a line of authority have
been skipped knowledge or acting on a message 8.

Grapevine is the transmission of information by word of mouth without

regard for organizational levels, departments or chain of command.
Messages sent via grapevine are also called ‘rumour mill’ because they have
no records and are treated as rumours9.

Some Positive aspects of informal communication are:

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Informal communication channels are likely to exist in these situations: 1) When the formal communication channels are closed or are slow; 2)
When information pertaining to an issue of interest is being withheld; 3) Where some members in the organizations, for some reasons, want to
be deliverers of information; 4) When important and sensitive documents which are left unattended to by irresponsible officers are read by
unauthorized employers: 1)

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The following are some of the reasons that may cause bypassing: 1) The absence of the members existing between the sender and the
recipient of the message. The absence may be due to a vacancy, illness, and other assignments; 2) Messages sent during emergencies such as
accidents, crises and deaths; 3) Bad relations or lack of trust existing between the sender and a member through whom the message has to
pass.

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Grapevine can be used in the following circumstances: 1) When managers want to test how employees are likely to receive changes in
policies, conditions of service, employment terms and others before implementation. This can be done by using one employee to spread a
rumour on an issue. With the passage of time, members become aware of the issue and feedback might be given. In case of unfavaourable
feedback, the manager may write a memo to dispel such rumours and withdraw the issue until some other favourable time; 2) When managers
want to know concerns of employees. This may assist in planning and addressing issues accordingly.

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  It may speed up the communication process: When an employee in
one department needs help to complete a task or solve a problem,
members of the informal network in other sections can use their
authority or power to assist. This avoids the delay of going through
the right channels.
 It may create a conducive working atmosphere, again leading to
higher productivity: If the needs and goals of formal management
coincide with those of the informal organization, then the atmosphere
of trust between the management and employees will lead to higher
productivity.
 It helps to diffuse tension: Job dissatisfaction is also related to social
environment. The informal network allows employees to ‘let off
steam’ with other colleagues diffusing potentially destructive conflicts
(Temple & Kavana, 2000, p9).
 It provides feedback to management: If management is sensitive to
the ’grapevine’, it can obtain information on how employees feel
about the organization, the management and the work.

Some Negative aspects of informal communication are:

 It may cause conflict within the formal structure: When the goals of
the informal structure differ from those of the formal structure,
conflict occurs. If the formal structure is ineffective, rumour spread
and this may disrupt the work process.
 The informal network tends to resist change: Organizational
restructuring (downsizing and others) that are perceived to threaten
the existing structure, will be opposed effectively by a well formed
informal organization.

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