Topic 1: Mathematical Modelling of Physical Systems

Type of System Governing Equation Electrical Equivalent

Mechanical F = M(d²x/dt²) + B(dx/dt) + Kx Mass (M) ↔ Inductance (L)

(Translational) Damper (B) ↔ Resistance (R)
Spring (K) ↔ 1/Capacitance (1/C)

Mechanical T = J(d²θ/dt²) + B(dθ/dt) + Kθ Torque ↔ Voltage

(Rotational) Angular Velocity ↔ Current

Electrical (RLC) V = Ri + L(di/dt) + 1/C ∫i dt Direct system equations

Key Concepts in Analogous Systems MCQ Insights

Mechanical Quantity Electrical Equivalent ●​ Identify correct analogies between
electrical and mechanical components
Force Voltage ●​ Model real-world mechanical system
using electrical analogy
Velocity Current
●​ Translate second-order DE to electrical
Mass Inductance circuit and vice versa

Damping Coefficient Resistance

Spring Constant Inverse of Capacitance

Topic 2: Transfer Function

Description Details
Steps
Definition Transfer Function (TF) is the 1.​ Start from physical system of
ratio of Laplace transform of differential equation
output to input under zero 2.​ Take Laplace transform (assume
initial conditions: TF = zero initial conditions)
Output(s) / Input(s) 3.​ Express Output(s)/Input(s)
4.​ Simplify into rational function
Validity Only valid for linear
time-invariant (LTI) systems MCQ Insights
with zero initial conditions ●​ Find transfer function from
system equation
Purpose Helps to analyze system ●​ Questions on identifying
behavior in the frequency numerator/denominator degree
domain using algebraic methods ●​ Determine order of system from
TF
Standard Form G(s) = Numerator Polynomial /
●​ Recognize type of response from
Denominator Polynomial = b₀sⁿ
poles
+ ... + b / a₀sᵐ + ... + aₘ
Topic 3: Block Diagram Reduction
Element Type Rule Expression

Series Multiply blocks G = G₁·G₂

Parallel Add blocks G = G₁ + G₂

Feedback Loop Use feedback formula G = G / (1 ± GH) (–ve feedback is common)

Steps to Reduce Block Diagrams MCQ Insights

1.​ Identify and reduce inner series and ●​ Questions involving nested feedback
parallel blocks systems
2.​ Apply feedback formula where ●​ Problems that require rearranging
applicable take-off points
3.​ Shift take-off or summing points ●​ Asked frequently: reduce block
(when needed) diagram to G(s)​
4.​ Continue simplifying
block-by-block
5.​ Final expression = overall TF of the
system

Topic 4: Signal Flow Graph (SFG) and Mason’s Gain Formula

Mason’s Gain Formula

Concept Description T = Σ(Pk·Δk) / Δ​
Where:
Node Represents a variable/state
Δ = 1 – (sum of all loop gains) +
Branch Represents signal transmission with gain (sum of gain products of 2
non-touching loops) – (sum of
Forward Path Direct path from input to output without node gain products of 3
(Pk) repetition non-touching loops) + ...​
Δk = value of Δ excluding
Loop Closed path that starts and ends at the same node
loops that touch forward path
Non-touching Two or more loops that do not share any node Pk
loops

​
Steps to Use Mason’s Rule MCQ Insights
1.​ Draw nodes and branches based on ●​ Problems on number of forward
equations paths, loops, and Δ
2.​ Identify all forward paths (Pk) ●​ Mason’s gain formula based TF
3.​ Find all individual loops and calculation
non-touching loop combinations ●​ Most common SFG MCQs ask
4.​ Compute Δ and Δk for Δ or TF computation
5.​ Apply Mason’s formula for total TF

​
Topic 5: Time Domain Specifications of Second-Order Systems
Specification Definition Formula

Rise Time (Tr) Time taken for response to go from 0% to Tr ≈ (π – θ)/ωd

100% of final value

Peak Time (Tp) Time to reach first maximum value Tp = π / ωd

(overshoot)

Maximum Overshoot Maximum peak beyond final steady value Mp = e^(–ζπ / √(1–ζ²)) ×
(Mp) 100%

Settling Time (Ts) Time for output to stay within 2–5% band Ts = 4 / (ζ·ωn)

Damped Frequency Natural frequency under damping ωd = ωn√(1–ζ²)

(ωd)

Important Notes MCQ Insights

●​ These apply only to second-order ●​ Most frequent: compute Mp, Ts, Tr,
systems:​ or Tp given ζ and ωn
G(s) = ωn² / (s² + 2ζωn s + ωn²) ●​ Match response graph with correct
●​ ζ = damping ratio, ωn = natural damping condition
frequency ●​ Identify damping ratio from transfer
●​ Underdamped (ζ < 1) → oscillatory function form
●​ Critically damped (ζ = 1),
Overdamped (ζ > 1) → no overshoot​

Topic 6: Frequency Domain Analysis — Bode Plot, Nyquist Plot, Gain &
Phase Margin
(A) BODE PLOT

Element Explanation

Purpose To show how the magnitude and phase of G(jω) vary with frequency

Axes X-axis: log(ω)

Y-axis ( 20 log₁₀) Mag): G(jω) Phase: ∠G(jω) in degrees

Components G(s) is broken into constant gain, poles, and zeros in standard form

Typical Elements 1 / (1 + sT) → magnitude slope = –20 dB/dec

(1 + sT) → magnitude slope = +20 dB/dec
s, 1/s → slope ±20 dB/dec
Phase: ±90° per factor (starts 1 decade before, ends 1 after corner
frequency)
Steps to Sketch Bode Plot MCQ Insights
1.​ Convert G(s) to time constant form​ ●​ Find slope of plot at given ω
Example: G(s) = 10 / [s(1 + 0.1s)(1 + s)] ●​ Locate gain crossover frequency
2.​ Identify corner (break) frequencies → (|G(jω)| = 1 or 0 dB)
ω = 1/T ●​ Find phase margin at gain crossover
3.​ Plot magnitude and phase of each ●​ Find number of poles/zeros from
factor shape
4.​ Add all individual responses to form
final Bode plot
5.​ Use asymptotic lines, adjust for
exact values at breakpoints

(B) NYQUIST PLOT

Element Explanation

Purpose To assess closed-loop stability using open-loop TF G(s)H(s)

Path in s-domain Nyquist contour: from ω = 0 → ∞ (jω-axis), then semicircle around ∞ →

back on –jω-axis

Plot in G(jω) plane Maps the above path into complex G(jω) plane

Critical Point (–1, 0) in G(jω) plane

Nyquist Criterion N=Z–P

N: Number of encirclements of –1 (clockwise = +)
P: RHP poles of G(s)H(s)
Z: RHP poles of closed-loop TF = number of unstable poles

Interpreting Stability MCQ Insights

●​ For P = 0, system is stable if Nyquist ●​ Nyquist plot shape → determine
plot does not encircle (–1, 0) stability
●​ For P > 0, system is stable if plot ●​ Number of encirclements = number
encircles (–1, 0) exactly P times in of unstable poles
clockwise direction ●​ Match given open-loop TF to its
Nyquist plot type​
(C) GAIN MARGIN (GM) & PHASE MARGIN (PM)

Term Definition Formula

Gain Extra gain (multiplicative) GM = 1 /ωpc = Phase crossover frequency,

Margin that can be added before where ∠G(jωpc) = –180°
system becomes unstable

Phase Extra phase that can be PM = 180° + ∠G(jωgc)ωgc = Gain crossover

Margin added (delay) before frequency, where G(jωgc)= 1
instability

Typical Ranges for Stability MCQ Insights

●​ PM > 30°, GM > 6 dB → good ●​ Compute PM, GM from magnitude
stability and phase expressions
●​ PM < 0 or GM < 1 → unstable system ●​ Bode plot reading → identify
crossover frequency and calculate
margins
●​ Stability type questions appear
frequently from this concept

Topic 7: Steady-State Errors and Error Constants

Input Static Error Constant Formula for ess Remarks
Type (steady state error)

Step Kp = lim s→0 G(s) ess = 1 / (1 + Kp) Type 0: finite

Type 1, 2: 0

Ramp Kv = lim s→0 s·G(s) ess = 1 / Kv Type 0: ∞

Type 1: finite
Type 2: 0

Parabolic Ka = lim s→0 s²·G(s) ess = 1 / Ka Type 0,1: ∞

Type 2: finite

System Type Classification Based on Poles at Origin MCQ Insights

No. of Integrators System Type ●​ Match system type with
(poles at s=0) steady-state error
●​ Calculate error
0 Type 0 constants from TF
●​ Qs often ask which
1 Type 1
input leads to
2 Type 2 zero/fixed/infinite error
Topic 8: Routh-Hurwitz Stability Criterion
Steps to Apply Routh’s Test

Special Case Rule

1.​ Write the characteristic
equation in descending Zero in first Replace with small ε, continue
powers of s​ column calculation
Example: s⁴ + 2s³ + 3s² + 4s +
5=0 Entire row = 0 Use auxiliary polynomial from row
2.​ Form the Routh array: above, take its derivative, use that row
○​ First row: coefficients
of even powers (s⁴, s², …) MCQ Insights
○​ Second row: coefficients of odd ●​ Number of RHP poles by sign
powers (s³, s¹, …) changes
3.​ Fill rows using the formula:​ ●​ Use of auxiliary equation or ε in zero
R(i,j) = [ (a × d – b × c) / a ] condition
4.​ Continue until s⁰ row ●​ TNPSC usually gives direct Routh
5.​ Check sign changes in first column: table with a missing entry
○​ No sign change → stable
○​ One or more sign changes → number of RHP poles = number of sign changes

Topic 9: Root Locus

Rule Meaning MCQ Insights

●​ Qs often ask centroid
Start point At poles of G(s)H(s) location, angles of
asymptotes
End point At zeros or ∞ (if number of poles >
●​ Sketch questions for
number of zeros)
poles/zeros with locus
Number of branches Equal to number of poles path
●​ Matching diagrams with
Real axis segments Exist where number of poles + zeros to pole-zero maps is common
right is odd

Asymptotes Direction of branches going to ∞

Centroid = (sum of poles – sum of
zeros) / (n – m)
Angles = ±(2q+1)180° / (n – m)

Steps to Sketch Root Locus 5.​ Find breakaway and break-in points
1.​ Identify poles and zeros from by solving dK/ds = 0
G(s)H(s) 6.​ Find angle of departure (for complex
2.​ Plot them on real axis poles)
3.​ Find real-axis segments 7.​ Plot direction of root movement as
4.​ Compute centroid and asymptote K increases
angles
Topic 10: Gain Margin and Phase Margin
Concept Description Computation

Gain Margin Additional gain needed to At phase crossover frequency (where

(GM) bring system to instability ∠G = –180°):GM = 1/G(jωpc)
If G(jωpc) = 0.5, then GM = 2

Phase Margin Additional phase delay to At gain crossover frequency (where PM

(PM) reach instability = 180° + ∠G(jωgc)
If ∠G(jωgc) = –135°, then PM = 45°

Important Ranges for Stability MCQ Insights

●​ PM > 30° and GM > 6 dB → Good ●​ Given Bode plot → find crossover
stability frequencies and margins
●​ If either PM or GM is negative → ●​ Determine stability condition from
system is unstable​ margins
●​ Fill-in-the-blank or numerical
calculation style questions

Topic 11: Basic Concepts of Compensator Design

1. Lead Compensator 2. Lag Compensator 3. Lag–Lead Compensator

●​ Improves transient ●​ Improves ●​ Used when both
response (rise time, steady-state transient and
phase margin) accuracy, reduces steady-state
●​ Adds positive phase steady-state error performance need
at mid frequencies ●​ Adds phase lag, improvement
●​ Increases system reduces bandwidth ●​ Combines phase lead
bandwidth slightly and phase lag
●​ Transfer Function:​ ●​ Transfer Function:​ ●​ Transfer Function:​
G(s) = (s + z) / (s + p), G(s) = (s + z) / (s + p), G(s) = (s + z₁)(s + z₂) /
where z > p where z < p​ (s + p₁)(s + p₂)​
with z₁ > p₁ and z₂ <
p₂

MCQ Insights
●​ Lead → increases bandwidth and phase margin
●​ Lag → reduces error, but slower
●​ Lag-lead → both effects in one, often asked for identification and TF matching​
Topic 12: PI, PD, PID Controllers
Controller Transfer Function Key Effects

P G(s) = Kp Speeds up system, reduces rise time, but does not

eliminate steady-state error

I G(s) = Ki / s Eliminates steady-state error, slows system, may cause

oscillation

D G(s) = Kd * s Improves damping, reduces overshoot, no impact on

steady-state error

PI G(s) = Kp + Ki / s Combines fast rise (P) with zero error (I); moderate
overshoot

PD G(s) = Kp + Kd * s Improves transient response; doesn't eliminate

steady-state error

PID G(s) = Kp + Ki / s + Balanced control; fast, accurate, well-damped; widely

Kd * s used in practice

MCQ Insights
●​ PI and PID → eliminate error
●​ PD → improves transient but error remains
●​ PID tuning and application matchups are common in TNPSC-type exams​

Topic 13: State Variable Formulation

General State-Space Representation:

●​ State Equation:​ From Transfer Function to State-Space:​

dx/dt = A·x + B·u Given:​
●​ Output Equation:​ G(s) = (b₀·sⁿ⁻¹ + b₁·sⁿ⁻² + ... + b ) / (sⁿ + a₁·sⁿ⁻¹ + ... + a )
y = C·x + D·u Then:​
Where: Controllable Canonical Form
●​ x = state vector A matrix:​
●​ u = input vector
[
A= − 𝑎1 − 𝑎2 ... − 𝑎𝑚 ]
●​ y = output vector
𝐵 = 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟: [1, 0, 0, ..., 0]ᵗ
●​ A = system matrix (n×n)
𝐶 = [𝑏₀, 𝑏₁, ..., 𝑏 ₋₁]
●​ B = input matrix (n×m)
𝐷 = 𝑏
●​ C = output matrix (p×n)
●​ D = direct transmission matrix (p×m)
MCQ Insights
●​ Count number of states = order of
denominator
●​ Recognize A, B, C, D from standard forms
●​ Asked as “Identify the correct state model for
given TF”​
Topic 14: State Transition Matrix (STM)

Definition Methods to Properties of STM: MCQ Insights

STM describes Compute Φ(t): Φ(0) = I "Find STM using
system evolution Laplace Method:​ Laplace or series
over time from Φ(s) = (s·I − A)⁻¹ → dΦ(t)/dt = A·Φ(t) expansion"
initial state (when Inverse Laplace
u(t) = 0) gives Φ(t) Φ(t₁ + t₂) = Φ(t₁)·Φ(t₂)​ Identify property
x(t) = Φ(t)·x(0)​ Series Expansion used (e.g., Φ(0) = I)
Method:​
Φ(t) = I + A·t + Most common
(A²·t²)/2! + (A³·t³)/3! STM-based Q:
+ ... solving for x(t)

Topic 15: Eigenvalues, Eigenvectors, Controllability & Observability

1. Eigenvalues & 2. Controllability 3. Observability

Eigenvectors System is controllable if System is observable if
From matrix A:​ input can move it from any internal states can be
det(A − λ·I) = 0 → solve for λ state to any other state inferred from outputs​
(eigenvalues)
Controllability matrix:​ Observability matrix:​
Each eigenvalue λ has Wc = [B, A·B, A²·B, ..., ​
corresponding eigenvector x Aⁿ⁻¹·B] Wo = | C |
such that:​ | C·A |
A·x = λ·x If rank(Wc) = n, system is | C·A² |
fully controllable | ... |
System is stable if all real | C·Aⁿ⁻¹ |
parts of eigenvalues < 0 If rank(Wo) = n, system is
fully observable

4. Free and Forced Responses MCQ Insights

●​ Free response (no input):​ ●​ Rank test questions: controllability,
x(t) = Φ(t)·x(0) observability
●​ Forced response (initial state = 0):​ ●​ Stability: sign of eigenvalues
x(t) = ∫₀ᵗ Φ(t − τ)·B·u(τ) dτ ●​ STM application in free/forced
response equations