Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs 7

1 | FUNCTIONS AND
GRAPHS

Figure 1.1 A portion of the San Andreas Fault in California. Major faults like this are the sites of most of the strongest
earthquakes ever recorded. (credit: modification of work by Robb Hannawacker, NPS)

Chapter Outline
1.1 Review of Functions
1.2 Basic Classes of Functions
1.3 Trigonometric Functions
1.4 Inverse Functions
1.5 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

Introduction
In the past few years, major earthquakes have occurred in several countries around the world. In January 2010, an
earthquake of magnitude 7.3 hit Haiti. A magnitude 9 earthquake shook northeastern Japan in March 2011. In April 2014,
an 8.2-magnitude earthquake struck off the coast of northern Chile. What do these numbers mean? In particular, how
does a magnitude 9 earthquake compare with an earthquake of magnitude 8.2? Or 7.3? Later in this chapter, we show
how logarithmic functions are used to compare the relative intensity of two earthquakes based on the magnitude of each
earthquake (see Example 1.39).
Calculus is the mathematics that describes changes in functions. In this chapter, we review all the functions necessary
to study calculus. We define polynomial, rational, trigonometric, exponential, and logarithmic functions. We review how
to evaluate these functions, and we show the properties of their graphs. We provide examples of equations with terms
involving these functions and illustrate the algebraic techniques necessary to solve them. In short, this chapter provides the
foundation for the material to come. It is essential to be familiar and comfortable with these ideas before proceeding to the
formal introduction of calculus in the next chapter.
8 Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs

1.1 | Review of Functions

Learning Objectives
1.1.1 Use functional notation to evaluate a function.
1.1.2 Determine the domain and range of a function.
1.1.3 Draw the graph of a function.
1.1.4 Find the zeros of a function.
1.1.5 Recognize a function from a table of values.
1.1.6 Make new functions from two or more given functions.
1.1.7 Describe the symmetry properties of a function.

In this section, we provide a formal definition of a function and examine several ways in which functions are
represented—namely, through tables, formulas, and graphs. We study formal notation and terms related to functions. We
also define composition of functions and symmetry properties. Most of this material will be a review for you, but it serves
as a handy reference to remind you of some of the algebraic techniques useful for working with functions.

Functions
Given two sets A and B, a set with elements that are ordered pairs (x, y), where x is an element of A and y is an
element of B, is a relation from A to B. A relation from A to B defines a relationship between those two sets. A
function is a special type of relation in which each element of the first set is related to exactly one element of the second
set. The element of the first set is called the input; the element of the second set is called the output. Functions are used all
the time in mathematics to describe relationships between two sets. For any function, when we know the input, the output is
determined, so we say that the output is a function of the input. For example, the area of a square is determined by its side
length, so we say that the area (the output) is a function of its side length (the input). The velocity of a ball thrown in the
air can be described as a function of the amount of time the ball is in the air. The cost of mailing a package is a function of
the weight of the package. Since functions have so many uses, it is important to have precise definitions and terminology to
study them.

Definition
A function f consists of a set of inputs, a set of outputs, and a rule for assigning each input to exactly one output. The
set of inputs is called the domain of the function. The set of outputs is called the range of the function.

For example, consider the function f , where the domain is the set of all real numbers and the rule is to square the input.
Then, the input x = 3 is assigned to the output 3 2 = 9. Since every nonnegative real number has a real-value square root,
every nonnegative number is an element of the range of this function. Since there is no real number with a square that is
negative, the negative real numbers are not elements of the range. We conclude that the range is the set of nonnegative real
numbers.
For a general function f with domain D, we often use x to denote the input and y to denote the output associated with
x. When doing so, we refer to x as the independent variable and y as the dependent variable, because it depends on x.
Using function notation, we write y = f (x), and we read this equation as “y equals f of x.” For the squaring function
described earlier, we write f (x) = x 2.

The concept of a function can be visualized using Figure 1.2, Figure 1.3, and Figure 1.4.

This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col11964/1.12

Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs 9

Figure 1.2 A function can be visualized as an input/output

device.

Figure 1.3 A function maps every element in the domain to

exactly one element in the range. Although each input can be
sent to only one output, two different inputs can be sent to the
same output.

Figure 1.4 In this case, a graph of a function f has a domain

of {1, 2, 3} and a range of {1, 2}. The independent variable
is x and the dependent variable is y.

Visit this applet link (http://www.openstax.org/l/grapherrors) to see more about graphs of functions.

We can also visualize a function by plotting points (x, y) in the coordinate plane where y = f (x). The graph of a function
is the set of all these points. For example, consider the function f , where the domain is the set D = {1, 2, 3} and the
rule is f (x) = 3 − x. In Figure 1.5, we plot a graph of this function.
10 Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs

Figure 1.5 Here we see a graph of the function f with

domain {1, 2, 3} and rule f (x) = 3 − x. The graph consists
of the points (x, f (x)) for all x in the domain.

Every function has a domain. However, sometimes a function is described by an equation, as in f (x) = x 2, with no
specific domain given. In this case, the domain is taken to be the set of all real numbers x for which f (x) is a real number.
For example, since any real number can be squared, if no other domain is specified, we consider the domain of f (x) = x 2
to be the set of all real numbers. On the other hand, the square root function f (x) = x only gives a real output if x is
nonnegative. Therefore, the domain of the function f (x) = x is the set of nonnegative real numbers, sometimes called the
natural domain.
For the functions f (x) = x 2 and f (x) = x, the domains are sets with an infinite number of elements. Clearly we cannot
list all these elements. When describing a set with an infinite number of elements, it is often helpful to use set-builder or
interval notation. When using set-builder notation to describe a subset of all real numbers, denoted ℝ, we write

x|x has some property .

⎧ ⎫
⎨ ⎬
⎩ ⎭

We read this as the set of real numbers x such that x has some property. For example, if we were interested in the set of
real numbers that are greater than one but less than five, we could denote this set using set-builder notation by writing
{x|1 < x < 5}.
A set such as this, which contains all numbers greater than a and less than b, can also be denoted using the interval
notation (a, b). Therefore,

(1, 5) = x|1 < x < 5 .

⎧
⎨
⎩
⎫
⎬
⎭

The numbers 1 and 5 are called the endpoints of this set. If we want to consider the set that includes the endpoints, we
would denote this set by writing
[1, 5] = {x|1 ≤ x ≤ 5}.
We can use similar notation if we want to include one of the endpoints, but not the other. To denote the set of nonnegative
real numbers, we would use the set-builder notation
{x|0 ≤ x}.
The smallest number in this set is zero, but this set does not have a largest number. Using interval notation, we would use
the symbol ∞, which refers to positive infinity, and we would write the set as

[0, ∞) = {x|0 ≤ x}.

It is important to note that ∞ is not a real number. It is used symbolically here to indicate that this set includes all real
numbers greater than or equal to zero. Similarly, if we wanted to describe the set of all nonpositive numbers, we could write
(−∞, 0] = {x|x ≤ 0}.

This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col11964/1.12

Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs 11

Here, the notation −∞ refers to negative infinity, and it indicates that we are including all numbers less than or equal to
zero, no matter how small. The set
(−∞, ∞) = x|x is any real number
⎧ ⎫
⎨ ⎬
⎩ ⎭

refers to the set of all real numbers.

Some functions are defined using different equations for different parts of their domain. These types of functions are known
as piecewise-defined functions. For example, suppose we want to define a function f with a domain that is the set of all
real numbers such that f (x) = 3x + 1 for x ≥ 2 and f (x) = x 2 for x < 2. We denote this function by writing
⎧3x + 1 x≥2
f (x) = ⎨ 2 .
⎩x x<2
When evaluating this function for an input x, the equation to use depends on whether x ≥ 2 or x < 2. For example,
since 5 > 2, we use the fact that f (x) = 3x + 1 for x ≥ 2 and see that f (5) = 3(5) + 1 = 16. On the other hand, for
x = −1, we use the fact that f (x) = x 2 for x < 2 and see that f (−1) = 1.

Example 1.1

Evaluating Functions

For the function f (x) = 3x 2 + 2x − 1, evaluate

a. f (−2)

b. f ( 2)

c. f (a + h)

Solution
Substitute the given value for x in the formula for f (x).

a. f (−2) = 3(−2) 2 + 2(−2) − 1 = 12 − 4 − 1 = 7

b. f ( 2) = 3( 2) 2 + 2 2 − 1 = 6 + 2 2 − 1 = 5 + 2 2

f (a + h) = 3(a + h) 2 + 2(a + h) − 1 = 3⎛⎝a 2 + 2ah + h 2⎞⎠ + 2a + 2h − 1

c.
= 3a 2 + 6ah + 3h 2 + 2a + 2h − 1

1.1 For f (x) = x 2 − 3x + 5, evaluate f (1) and f (a + h).

Example 1.2

Finding Domain and Range

For each of the following functions, determine the i. domain and ii. range.
12 Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs

a. f (x) = (x − 4) 2 + 5

b. f (x) = 3x + 2 − 1

c. f (x) = 3
x−2

Solution
a. Consider f (x) = (x − 4) 2 + 5.

i. Since f (x) = (x − 4) 2 + 5 is a real number for any real number x, the domain of f is the
interval (−∞, ∞).

ii. Since (x − 4) 2 ≥ 0, we know f (x) = (x − 4) 2 + 5 ≥ 5. Therefore, the range must be a subset

of y|y ≥ 5 . To show that every element in this set is in the range, we need to show that for a
⎧ ⎫
⎨ ⎬
⎩ ⎭

given y in that set, there is a real number x such that f (x) = (x − 4) 2 + 5 = y. Solving this
equation for x, we see that we need x such that

(x − 4) 2 = y − 5.

This equation is satisfied as long as there exists a real number x such that

x − 4 = ± y − 5.

Since y ≥ 5, the square root is well-defined. We conclude that for x = 4 ± y − 5, f (x) = y,

and therefore the range is y|y ≥ 5 .
⎧ ⎫
⎨ ⎬
⎩ ⎭

b. Consider f (x) = 3x + 2 − 1.

i. To find the domain of f , we need the expression 3x + 2 ≥ 0. Solving this inequality, we

conclude that the domain is {x|x ≥ −2/3}.

ii. To find the range of f , we note that since 3x + 2 ≥ 0, f (x) = 3x + 2 − 1 ≥ −1. Therefore,
the range of f must be a subset of the set y|y ≥ −1 . To show that every element in this set is
⎧ ⎫
⎨ ⎬
⎩ ⎭

in the range of f , we need to show that for all y in this set, there exists a real number x in the
domain such that f (x) = y. Let y ≥ −1. Then, f (x) = y if and only if

3x + 2 − 1 = y.

Solving this equation for x, we see that x must solve the equation

3x + 2 = y + 1.

Since y ≥ −1, such an x could exist. Squaring both sides of this equation, we have
2
3x + 2 = (y + 1) .
Therefore, we need
3x = (y + 1) 2 − 2,

This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col11964/1.12

Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs 13

which implies

x = 1 ⎛⎝y + 1⎞⎠ 2 − 2 .
3 3

We just need to verify that x is in the domain of f . Since the domain of f consists of all real
numbers greater than or equal to −2/3, and

1 ⎛⎝y + 1⎞⎠ 2 − 2 ≥ − 2 ,
3 3 3

there does exist an x in the domain of f . We conclude that the range of f is y|y ≥ −1 .
⎧ ⎫
⎨ ⎬
⎩ ⎭

c. Consider f (x) = 3/(x − 2).

i. Since 3/(x − 2) is defined when the denominator is nonzero, the domain is {x|x ≠ 2}.

ii. To find the range of f , we need to find the values of y such that there exists a real number x
in the domain with the property that
3 = y.
x−2

Solving this equation for x, we find that

x = 3y + 2.

Therefore, as long as y ≠ 0, there exists a real number x in the domain such that f (x) = y.
Thus, the range is y|y ≠ 0 .
⎧ ⎫
⎨ ⎬
⎩ ⎭

1.2 Find the domain and range for f (x) = 4 − 2x + 5.

Representing Functions
Typically, a function is represented using one or more of the following tools:
• A table
• A graph
• A formula
We can identify a function in each form, but we can also use them together. For instance, we can plot on a graph the values
from a table or create a table from a formula.
Tables
Functions described using a table of values arise frequently in real-world applications. Consider the following simple
example. We can describe temperature on a given day as a function of time of day. Suppose we record the temperature every
hour for a 24-hour period starting at midnight. We let our input variable x be the time after midnight, measured in hours,
and the output variable y be the temperature x hours after midnight, measured in degrees Fahrenheit. We record our data
in Table 1.1.
14 Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs

Hours after Midnight Temperature (°F) Hours after Midnight Temperature (°F)

0 58 12 84

1 54 13 85

2 53 14 85

3 52 15 83

4 52 16 82

5 55 17 80

6 60 18 77

7 64 19 74

8 72 20 69

9 75 21 65

10 78 22 60

11 80 23 58

Table 1.1 Temperature as a Function of Time of Day

We can see from the table that temperature is a function of time, and the temperature decreases, then increases, and then
decreases again. However, we cannot get a clear picture of the behavior of the function without graphing it.
Graphs
Given a function f described by a table, we can provide a visual picture of the function in the form of a graph. Graphing
the temperatures listed in Table 1.1 can give us a better idea of their fluctuation throughout the day. Figure 1.6 shows the
plot of the temperature function.

This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col11964/1.12

Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs 15

Figure 1.6 The graph of the data from Table 1.1 shows
temperature as a function of time.

From the points plotted on the graph in Figure 1.6, we can visualize the general shape of the graph. It is often useful
to connect the dots in the graph, which represent the data from the table. In this example, although we cannot make any
definitive conclusion regarding what the temperature was at any time for which the temperature was not recorded, given
the number of data points collected and the pattern in these points, it is reasonable to suspect that the temperatures at other
times followed a similar pattern, as we can see in Figure 1.7.

Figure 1.7 Connecting the dots in Figure 1.6 shows the

general pattern of the data.

Algebraic Formulas
Sometimes we are not given the values of a function in table form, rather we are given the values in an explicit formula.
Formulas arise in many applications. For example, the area of a circle of radius r is given by the formula A(r) = πr 2.
When an object is thrown upward from the ground with an initial velocity v 0 ft/s, its height above the ground from the
time it is thrown until it hits the ground is given by the formula s(t) = −16t 2 + v 0 t. When P dollars are invested in an
account at an annual interest rate r compounded continuously, the amount of money after t years is given by the formula
A(t) = Pe rt. Algebraic formulas are important tools to calculate function values. Often we also represent these functions
visually in graph form.
16 Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs

Given an algebraic formula for a function f , the graph of f is the set of points ⎛⎝x, f (x)⎞⎠, where x is in the domain of
f and f (x) is in the range. To graph a function given by a formula, it is helpful to begin by using the formula to create
a table of inputs and outputs. If the domain of f consists of an infinite number of values, we cannot list all of them, but
because listing some of the inputs and outputs can be very useful, it is often a good way to begin.
When creating a table of inputs and outputs, we typically check to determine whether zero is an output. Those values of
x where f (x) = 0 are called the zeros of a function. For example, the zeros of f (x) = x 2 − 4 are x = ± 2. The zeros
determine where the graph of f intersects the x -axis, which gives us more information about the shape of the graph of
the function. The graph of a function may never intersect the x-axis, or it may intersect multiple (or even infinitely many)
times.
Another point of interest is the y -intercept, if it exists. The y -intercept is given by ⎛⎝0, f (0)⎞⎠.

Since a function has exactly one output for each input, the graph of a function can have, at most, one y -intercept. If x = 0
is in the domain of a function f , then f has exactly one y -intercept. If x = 0 is not in the domain of f , then f has
no y -intercept. Similarly, for any real number c, if c is in the domain of f , there is exactly one output f (c), and the
line x = c intersects the graph of f exactly once. On the other hand, if c is not in the domain of f , f (c) is not defined
and the line x = c does not intersect the graph of f . This property is summarized in the vertical line test.

Rule: Vertical Line Test

Given a function f , every vertical line that may be drawn intersects the graph of f no more than once. If any vertical
line intersects a set of points more than once, the set of points does not represent a function.

We can use this test to determine whether a set of plotted points represents the graph of a function (Figure 1.8).

Figure 1.8 (a) The set of plotted points represents the graph of
a function because every vertical line intersects the set of points,
at most, once. (b) The set of plotted points does not represent the
graph of a function because some vertical lines intersect the set
of points more than once.

Example 1.3

This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col11964/1.12

Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs 17

Finding Zeros and y -Intercepts of a Function

Consider the function f (x) = −4x + 2.

a. Find all zeros of f .

b. Find the y -intercept (if any).

c. Sketch a graph of f .

Solution
a. To find the zeros, solve f (x) = −4x + 2 = 0. We discover that f has one zero at x = 1/2.

b. The y -intercept is given by ⎛⎝0, f (0)⎞⎠ = (0, 2).

c. Given that f is a linear function of the form f (x) = mx + b that passes through the points (1/2, 0) and
(0, 2), we can sketch the graph of f (Figure 1.9).

Figure 1.9 The function f (x) = −4x + 2 is a line with

x -intercept (1/2, 0) and y -intercept (0, 2).

Example 1.4

Using Zeros and y -Intercepts to Sketch a Graph

Consider the function f (x) = x + 3 + 1.

a. Find all zeros of f .

b. Find the y -intercept (if any).

c. Sketch a graph of f .

Solution
a. To find the zeros, solve x + 3 + 1 = 0. This equation implies x + 3 = −1. Since x + 3 ≥ 0 for all
18 Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs

x, this equation has no solutions, and therefore f has no zeros.

b. The y -intercept is given by ⎛⎝0, f (0)⎞⎠ = (0, 3 + 1).

c. To graph this function, we make a table of values. Since we need x + 3 ≥ 0, we need to choose values
of x ≥ −3. We choose values that make the square-root function easy to evaluate.

x −3 −2 1

f (x) 1 2 3

Table 1.2

Making use of the table and knowing that, since the function is a square root, the graph of f should be similar to
the graph of y = x, we sketch the graph (Figure 1.10).

Figure 1.10 The graph of f (x) = x + 3 + 1 has a

y -intercept but no x -intercepts.

1.3 Find the zeros of f (x) = x 3 − 5x 2 + 6x.

Example 1.5

Finding the Height of a Free-Falling Object

If a ball is dropped from a height of 100 ft, its height s at time t is given by the function s(t) = −16t 2 + 100,
where s is measured in feet and t is measured in seconds. The domain is restricted to the interval [0, c], where
t = 0 is the time when the ball is dropped and t = c is the time when the ball hits the ground.
a. Create a table showing the height s(t) when t = 0, 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2, and 2.5. Using the data from the
table, determine the domain for this function. That is, find the time c when the ball hits the ground.
b. Sketch a graph of s.

This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col11964/1.12

Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs 19

Solution
a.

t 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

s(t) 100 96 84 64 36 0

Table 1.3
Height s as a Function of Time t

Since the ball hits the ground when t = 2.5, the domain of this function is the interval [0, 2.5].

b.

Note that for this function and the function f (x) = −4x + 2 graphed in Figure 1.9, the values of f (x) are getting
smaller as x is getting larger. A function with this property is said to be decreasing. On the other hand, for the function
f (x) = x + 3 + 1 graphed in Figure 1.10, the values of f (x) are getting larger as the values of x are getting larger.
A function with this property is said to be increasing. It is important to note, however, that a function can be increasing on
some interval or intervals and decreasing over a different interval or intervals. For example, using our temperature function
in Figure 1.6, we can see that the function is decreasing on the interval (0, 4), increasing on the interval (4, 14), and
then decreasing on the interval (14, 23). We make the idea of a function increasing or decreasing over a particular interval
more precise in the next definition.

Definition
We say that a function f is increasing on the interval I if for all x 1, x 2 ∈ I,

f (x 1) ≤ f (x 2) when x 1 < x 2.

We say f is strictly increasing on the interval I if for all x 1, x 2 ∈ I,

20 Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs

f (x 1) < f (x 2) when x 1 < x 2.

We say that a function f is decreasing on the interval I if for all x 1, x 2 ∈ I,

f (x 1) ≥ f (x 2) if x 1 < x 2.

We say that a function f is strictly decreasing on the interval I if for all x 1, x 2 ∈ I,

f (x 1) > f (x 2) if x 1 < x 2.

For example, the function f (x) = 3x is increasing on the interval (−∞, ∞) because 3x 1 < 3x 2 whenever x 1 < x 2.
On the other hand, the function f (x) = −x 3 is decreasing on the interval (−∞, ∞) because −x 13 > − x 23 whenever
x 1 < x 2 (Figure 1.11).

Figure 1.11 (a) The function f (x) = 3x is increasing on the interval (−∞, ∞). (b) The

function f (x) = −x 3 is decreasing on the interval (−∞, ∞).

Combining Functions
Now that we have reviewed the basic characteristics of functions, we can see what happens to these properties when we
combine functions in different ways, using basic mathematical operations to create new functions. For example, if the cost
for a company to manufacture x items is described by the function C(x) and the revenue created by the sale of x items is
described by the function R(x), then the profit on the manufacture and sale of x items is defined as P(x) = R(x) − C(x).
Using the difference between two functions, we created a new function.
Alternatively, we can create a new function by composing two functions. For example, given the functions f (x) = x 2 and
g(x) = 3x + 1, the composite function f ∘ g is defined such that
⎛
⎝ f ∘ g⎞⎠(x) = f ⎛⎝g(x)⎞⎠ = ⎛⎝g(x)⎞⎠ 2 = (3x + 1) 2.

This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col11964/1.12

Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs 21

The composite function g ∘ f is defined such that

⎛
⎝g ∘ f ⎞⎠(x) = g⎛⎝ f (x)⎞⎠ = 3 f (x) + 1 = 3x 2 + 1.

Note that these two new functions are different from each other.
Combining Functions with Mathematical Operators
To combine functions using mathematical operators, we simply write the functions with the operator and simplify. Given
two functions f and g, we can define four new functions:
⎛
⎝ f + g⎞⎠(x) = f (x) + g(x) Sum
⎛ ⎞
⎝ f − g⎠(x) = f (x) − g(x) Difference
⎛ ⎞
⎝ f · g⎠(x) = f (x)g(x) Product
⎛f ⎞ f (x)
⎝ g ⎠(x) = g(x) for g(x) ≠ 0 Quotient

Example 1.6

Combining Functions Using Mathematical Operations

Given the functions f (x) = 2x − 3 and g(x) = x 2 − 1, find each of the following functions and state its
domain.
a. ( f + g)(x)

b. ( f − g)(x)

c. ( f · g)(x)

⎛f ⎞
d. ⎝ g ⎠(x)

Solution
a. ⎛
⎝ f + g⎞⎠(x) = (2x − 3) + (x 2 − 1) = x 2 + 2x − 4. The domain of this function is the interval (−∞, ∞).

b. ⎛
⎝ f − g⎞⎠(x) = (2x − 3) − (x 2 − 1) = −x 2 + 2x − 2. The domain of this function is the interval
(−∞, ∞).

c. ⎛
⎝ f · g⎞⎠(x) = (2x − 3)(x 2 − 1) = 2x 3 − 3x 2 − 2x + 3. The domain of this function is the interval
(−∞, ∞).
⎛f ⎞ 2x − 3
d. ⎝ g ⎠(x) = x 2 − 1 . The domain of this function is {x|x ≠ ±1}.

1.4 For f (x) = x 2 + 3 and g(x) = 2x − 5, find ⎛⎝ f /g⎞⎠(x) and state its domain.

Function Composition
When we compose functions, we take a function of a function. For example, suppose the temperature T on a given day is
described as a function of time t (measured in hours after midnight) as in Table 1.1. Suppose the cost C, to heat or cool
a building for 1 hour, can be described as a function of the temperature T. Combining these two functions, we can describe
22 Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs

the cost of heating or cooling a building as a function of time by evaluating C⎛⎝T(t)⎞⎠. We have defined a new function,
denoted C ∘ T, which is defined such that (C ∘ T)(t) = C(T(t)) for all t in the domain of T. This new function is called
a composite function. We note that since cost is a function of temperature and temperature is a function of time, it makes
sense to define this new function (C ∘ T)(t). It does not make sense to consider (T ∘ C)(t), because temperature is not a
function of cost.

Definition
Consider the function f with domain A and range B, and the function g with domain D and range E. If B is a
subset of D, then the composite function (g ∘ f )(x) is the function with domain A such that
⎛
⎝g ∘ f ⎞⎠(x) = g⎛⎝ f (x)⎞⎠. (1.1)

A composite function g ∘ f can be viewed in two steps. First, the function f maps each input x in the domain of f to
its output f (x) in the range of f . Second, since the range of f is a subset of the domain of g, the output f (x) is an
element in the domain of g, and therefore it is mapped to an output g⎛⎝ f (x)⎞⎠ in the range of g. In Figure 1.12, we see a
visual image of a composite function.

Figure 1.12 For the composite function g ∘ f , we have

⎛
⎝g ∘ f ⎞⎠(1) = 4, ⎛⎝g ∘ f ⎞⎠(2) = 5, and ⎛⎝g ∘ f ⎞⎠(3) = 4.

Example 1.7

Compositions of Functions Defined by Formulas

Consider the functions f (x) = x 2 + 1 and g(x) = 1/x.

a. Find (g ∘ f )(x) and state its domain and range.

b. Evaluate (g ∘ f )(4), (g ∘ f )(−1/2).

c. Find ( f ∘ g)(x) and state its domain and range.

d. Evaluate ( f ∘ g)(4), ( f ∘ g)(−1/2).

Solution
a. We can find the formula for (g ∘ f )(x) in two different ways. We could write

(g ∘ f )(x) = g( f (x)) = g(x 2 + 1) = 1 .

x2 + 1

This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col11964/1.12

Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs 23

Alternatively, we could write

(g ∘ f )(x) = g⎛⎝ f (x)⎞⎠ = 1 = 2 1 .

f (x) x + 1

Since x 2 + 1 ≠ 0 for all real numbers x, the domain of (g ∘ f )(x) is the set of all real numbers. Since
0 < 1/(x 2 + 1) ≤ 1, the range is, at most, the interval (0, 1]. To show that the range is this entire
interval, we let y = 1/(x 2 + 1) and solve this equation for x to show that for all y in the interval
(0, 1], there exists a real number x such that y = 1/(x 2 + 1). Solving this equation for x, we see
that x 2 + 1 = 1/y, which implies that

x = ± 1y − 1.

If y is in the interval (0, 1], the expression under the radical is nonnegative, and therefore there exists
a real number x such that 1/(x 2 + 1) = y. We conclude that the range of g ∘ f is the interval (0, 1].

b. (g ∘ f )(4) = g( f (4)) = g(4 2 + 1) = g(17) = 1

17
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎛ ⎞⎞
⎛ ⎛ ⎞
2 ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
(g ∘ f )⎝− 1 ⎠ = g⎝ f ⎝− 1 ⎠⎠ = g⎜⎝− 1 ⎠ + 1⎟ = g⎝5 ⎠ = 4
2 2 ⎝ 2 ⎠ 4 5

c. We can find a formula for ( f ∘ g)(x) in two ways. First, we could write
2
( f ∘ g)(x) = f (g(x)) = f ⎛⎝1x ⎞⎠ = ⎛⎝1x ⎞⎠ + 1.

Alternatively, we could write

2
( f ∘ g)(x) = f (g(x)) = (g(x)) 2 + 1 = ⎛⎝1x ⎞⎠ + 1.

The domain of f ∘ g is the set of all real numbers x such that x ≠ 0. To find the range of f , we need
to find all values y for which there exists a real number x ≠ 0 such that
2
⎛1 ⎞
⎝x ⎠ + 1 = y.

Solving this equation for x, we see that we need x to satisfy

2
⎛1 ⎞
⎝x ⎠ = y − 1,

which simplifies to
1 = ± y − 1.
x

Finally, we obtain
24 Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs

x= ± 1 .
y−1

Since 1/ y − 1 is a real number if and only if y > 1, the range of f is the set y|y > 1 .
⎧ ⎫
⎨ ⎬
⎩ ⎭

⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
2
d. ( f ∘ g)(4) = f (g(4)) = f ⎝1 ⎠ = ⎝1 ⎠ + 1 = 17
4 4 16
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎛ ⎞⎞
( f ∘ g)⎝− 1 ⎠ = f ⎝g⎝− 1 ⎠⎠ = f (−2) = (−2) 2 + 1 = 5
2 2

In Example 1.7, we can see that ⎛⎝ f ∘ g⎞⎠(x) ≠ ⎛⎝g ∘ f ⎞⎠(x). This tells us, in general terms, that the order in which we compose
functions matters.
1.5 Let f (x) = 2 − 5x. Let g(x) = x. Find ⎛⎝ f ∘ g⎞⎠(x).

Example 1.8

Composition of Functions Defined by Tables

Consider the functions f and g described by Table 1.4 and Table 1.5.

x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4

f (x) 0 4 2 4 −2 0 −2 4

Table 1.4

x −4 −2 0 2 4

g(x) 1 0 3 0 5

Table 1.5

a. Evaluate (g ∘ f )(3), ⎛⎝g ∘ f ⎞⎠(0).

b. State the domain and range of ⎛⎝g ∘ f ⎞⎠(x).

c. Evaluate ( f ∘ f )(3), ⎛⎝ f ∘ f ⎞⎠(1).

d. State the domain and range of ⎛⎝ f ∘ f ⎞⎠(x).

Solution

This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col11964/1.12

Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs 25

⎛
a. ⎝g ∘ f ⎞⎠(3) = g⎛⎝ f (3)⎞⎠ = g(−2) = 0
(g ∘ f )(0) = g(4) = 5

b. The domain of g ∘ f is the set {−3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4}. Since the range of f is the set
{−2, 0, 2, 4}, the range of g ∘ f is the set {0, 3, 5}.
⎛
c. ⎝ f ∘ f ⎞⎠(3) = f ⎛⎝ f (3)⎞⎠ = f (−2) = 4
( f ∘ f )(1) = f ( f (1)) = f (−2) = 4

d. The domain of f ∘ f is the set {−3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4}. Since the range of f is the set
{−2, 0, 2, 4}, the range of f ∘ f is the set {0, 4}.

Example 1.9

Application Involving a Composite Function

A store is advertising a sale of 20% off all merchandise. Caroline has a coupon that entitles her to an additional
15% off any item, including sale merchandise. If Caroline decides to purchase an item with an original price of
x dollars, how much will she end up paying if she applies her coupon to the sale price? Solve this problem by
using a composite function.

Solution
Since the sale price is 20% off the original price, if an item is x dollars, its sale price is given by f (x) = 0.80x.
Since the coupon entitles an individual to 15% off the price of any item, if an item is y dollars, the price, after
applying the coupon, is given by g(y) = 0.85y. Therefore, if the price is originally x dollars, its sale price will
be f (x) = 0.80x and then its final price after the coupon will be g( f (x)) = 0.85(0.80x) = 0.68x.

1.6 If items are on sale for 10% off their original price, and a customer has a coupon for an additional 30%
off, what will be the final price for an item that is originally x dollars, after applying the coupon to the sale
price?

Symmetry of Functions
The graphs of certain functions have symmetry properties that help us understand the function and the shape of its graph.
For example, consider the function f (x) = x 4 − 2x 2 − 3 shown in Figure 1.13(a). If we take the part of the curve that
lies to the right of the y-axis and flip it over the y-axis, it lays exactly on top of the curve to the left of the y-axis. In this
case, we say the function has symmetry about the y-axis. On the other hand, consider the function f (x) = x 3 − 4x shown
in Figure 1.13(b). If we take the graph and rotate it 180° about the origin, the new graph will look exactly the same. In
this case, we say the function has symmetry about the origin.
26 Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs

Figure 1.13 (a) A graph that is symmetric about the y -axis. (b) A graph that is symmetric
about the origin.

If we are given the graph of a function, it is easy to see whether the graph has one of these symmetry properties. But without
a graph, how can we determine algebraically whether a function f has symmetry? Looking at Figure 1.14 again, we see
that since f is symmetric about the y -axis, if the point (x, y) is on the graph, the point (−x, y) is on the graph. In other
words, f (−x) = f (x). If a function f has this property, we say f is an even function, which has symmetry about the
y-axis. For example, f (x) = x 2 is even because

f (−x) = (−x) 2 = x 2 = f (x).

In contrast, looking at Figure 1.14 again, if a function f is symmetric about the origin, then whenever the point (x, y) is
on the graph, the point (−x, −y) is also on the graph. In other words, f (−x) = − f (x). If f has this property, we say f
is an odd function, which has symmetry about the origin. For example, f (x) = x 3 is odd because

f (−x) = (−x) 3 = −x 3 = − f (x).

Definition
If f (x) = f (−x) for all x in the domain of f , then f is an even function. An even function is symmetric about the
y-axis.
If f (−x) = − f (x) for all x in the domain of f , then f is an odd function. An odd function is symmetric about the
origin.

Example 1.10

Even and Odd Functions

Determine whether each of the following functions is even, odd, or neither.

a. f (x) = −5x 4 + 7x 2 − 2

This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col11964/1.12

Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs 27

b. f (x) = 2x 5 − 4x + 5

c. f (x) = 3x
x2 + 1

Solution
To determine whether a function is even or odd, we evaluate f (−x) and compare it to f(x) and − f (x).

a. f (−x) = −5(−x) 4 + 7(−x) 2 − 2 = −5x 4 + 7x 2 − 2 = f (x). Therefore, f is even.

b. f (−x) = 2(−x) 5 − 4(−x) + 5 = −2x 5 + 4x + 5. Now, f (−x) ≠ f (x). Furthermore, noting that
− f (x) = −2x 5 + 4x − 5, we see that f (−x) ≠ − f (x). Therefore, f is neither even nor odd.

c. f (−x) = 3(−x)/((−x) 2 + 1} = −3x/(x 2 + 1) = −[3x/(x 2 + 1)] = − f (x). Therefore, f is odd.

1.7 Determine whether f (x) = 4x 3 − 5x is even, odd, or neither.

One symmetric function that arises frequently is the absolute value function, written as |x|. The absolute value function is
defined as
⎧−x, x < 0 (1.2)
f (x) = ⎨ .
⎩ x, x ≥ 0

Some students describe this function by stating that it “makes everything positive.” By the definition of the absolute value
function, we see that if x < 0, then |x| = −x > 0, and if x > 0, then |x| = x > 0. However, for x = 0, |x| = 0.
Therefore, it is more accurate to say that for all nonzero inputs, the output is positive, but if x = 0, the output |x| = 0. We
conclude that the range of the absolute value function is y|y ≥ 0 . In Figure 1.14, we see that the absolute value function
⎧ ⎫
⎨ ⎬
⎩ ⎭

is symmetric about the y-axis and is therefore an even function.

Figure 1.14 The graph of f (x) = |x| is symmetric about the

y -axis.
28 Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs

Example 1.11

Working with the Absolute Value Function

Find the domain and range of the function f (x) = 2|x − 3| + 4.

Solution
Since the absolute value function is defined for all real numbers, the domain of this function is (−∞, ∞). Since
|x − 3| ≥ 0 for all x, the function f (x) = 2|x − 3| + 4 ≥ 4. Therefore, the range is, at most, the set y|y ≥ 4 .
⎧ ⎫
⎨ ⎬
⎩ ⎭

To see that the range is, in fact, this whole set, we need to show that for y ≥ 4 there exists a real number x such
that
2|x − 3| + 4 = y.

A real number x satisfies this equation as long as

|x − 3| = 1 (y − 4).
2
Since y ≥ 4, we know y − 4 ≥ 0, and thus the right-hand side of the equation is nonnegative, so it is possible
that there is a solution. Furthermore,
⎧−(x − 3) if x < 3
|x − 3| = ⎨ .
⎩x−3 if x ≥ 3
Therefore, we see there are two solutions:

x = ± 1 (y − 4) + 3.
2
The range of this function is y|y ≥ 4 .
⎧ ⎫
⎨ ⎬
⎩ ⎭

1.8 For the function f (x) = |x + 2| − 4, find the domain and range.

This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col11964/1.12

Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs 29

1.1 EXERCISES
For the following exercises, (a) determine the domain and 4.
the range of each relation, and (b) state whether the relation y y
x x
is a function.

1. 1 1 5 1
x y x y
2 1 6 1
−3 9 1 1

3 1 7 1
−2 4 2 4

4 1
−1 1 3 9

0 0 5.
x y x y

2. 3 3 15 1
x y x y
5 2 21 2
−3 −2 1 1

8 1 33 3
−2 −8 2 8

10 0
−1 −1 3 −2

0 0 6.
x y x y

3. −7 11 1 −2
x y x y
−2 5 3 4
1 −3 1 1

−2 1 6 11
2 −2 2 2

0 −1
3 −1 3 3

0 0 For the following exercises, find the values for each

function, if they exist, then simplify.
a. f (0) b. f (1) c. f (3) d. f (−x) e. f (a) f. f (a + h)

7. f (x) = 5x − 2
30 Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs

8. f (x) = 4x 2 − 3x + 1 23. f (x) = 3x − 6

x y x y
9. f (x) = 2x
−3 −15 1 −3
10. f (x) = |x − 7| + 8

11. f (x) = 6x + 5 −2 −12 2 0

12. f (x) = x − 2 −1 −9 3 3
3x + 7

13. f (x) = 9 0 −6

For the following exercises, find the domain, range, and all
zeros/intercepts, if any, of the functions.
x 24. f (x) = 1 x + 1
14. f (x) = 2
x 2 − 16
x y x y
15. g(x) = 8x − 1
−1 3
−3 2 1 2
16. h(x) = 2 3
x +4
−2 0 2 2
17. f (x) = −1 + x + 2

18. f (x) = 1 1 5
−1 2 3 2
x−9

19. g(x) = 3
x−4 0 1

20. f (x) = 4|x + 5|

7 25. f (x) = 2|x|

21. g(x) =
x−5
x y x y
For the following exercises, set up a table to sketch the
graph of each function using the following values: −3 6 1 2
x = −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3.

−2 4 2 4
22. f (x) = x 2 + 1

x y x y
−1 2 3 6

−3 10 1 2
0 0

−2 5 2 5

−1 2 3 10

0 1

This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col11964/1.12

Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs 31

26. f (x) = −x 2 28.

x y x y

−3 −9 1 −1

−2 −4 2 −4

−1 −1 3 −9

0 0

27. f (x) = x 3

x y x y
29.

−3 −27 1 1

−2 −8 2 8

−1 −1 3 27

0 0

For the following exercises, use the vertical line test to

determine whether each of the given graphs represents a
function. Assume that a graph continues at both ends if
it extends beyond the given grid. If the graph represents a
function, then determine the following for each graph:
a. Domain and range 30.
b. x -intercept, if any (estimate where necessary)
c. y -Intercept, if any (estimate where necessary)

d. The intervals for which the function is increasing

e. The intervals for which the function is decreasing
f. The intervals for which the function is constant
g. Symmetry about any axis and/or the origin
h. Whether the function is even, odd, or neither
32 Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs

31. 34.

32.

35.

33.

For the following exercises, for each pair of functions, find

a. f + g b. f − g c. f · g d. f /g. Determine the domain
of each of these new functions.

36. f (x) = 3x + 4, g(x) = x − 2

37. f (x) = x − 8, g(x) = 5x 2

38. f (x) = 3x 2 + 4x + 1, g(x) = x + 1

39. f (x) = 9 − x 2, g(x) = x 2 − 2x − 3

40. f (x) = x, g(x) = x − 2

41. f (x) = 6 + 1x , g(x) = 1x

For the following exercises, for each pair of functions, find

This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col11964/1.12

Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs 33

a. ⎛⎝ f ∘ g⎞⎠(x) and b. ⎛⎝g ∘ f ⎞⎠(x) Simplify the results. Find the 49. The table below lists the NBA championship winners
domain of each of the results. for the years 2001 to 2012.
Year Winner
42. f (x) = 3x, g(x) = x + 5
2001 LA Lakers
43. f (x) = x + 4, g(x) = 4x − 1

2002 LA Lakers
44. f (x) = 2x + 4, g(x) = x 2 − 2

45. f (x) = x 2 + 7, g(x) = x 2 − 3 2003 San Antonio Spurs

46. f (x) = x, g(x) = x + 9

2004 Detroit Pistons

47. f (x) = 3 , g(x) = 2

2x + 1 x 2005 San Antonio Spurs

48. f (x) = |x + 1|, g(x) = x 2 + x − 4

2006 Miami Heat

2007 San Antonio Spurs

2008 Boston Celtics

2009 LA Lakers

2010 LA Lakers

2011 Dallas Mavericks

2012 Miami Heat

a. Consider the relation in which the domain values

are the years 2001 to 2012 and the range is the
corresponding winner. Is this relation a function?
Explain why or why not.
b. Consider the relation where the domain values are
the winners and the range is the corresponding
years. Is this relation a function? Explain why or
why not.

50. [T] The area A of a square depends on the length of

the side s.
a. Write a function A(s) for the area of a square.
b. Find and interpret A(6.5).
c. Find the exact and the two-significant-digit
approximation to the length of the sides of a square
with area 56 square units.
34 Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs

51. [T] The volume of a cube depends on the length of the 56. [T] An American tourist visits Paris and must convert
sides s. U.S. dollars to Euros, which can be done using the function
a. Write a function V(s) for the volume of a cube. E(x) = 0.79x, where x is the number of U.S. dollars and
b. Find and interpret V(11.8). E(x) is the equivalent number of Euros. Since conversion
rates fluctuate, when the tourist returns to the United States
52. [T] A rental car company rents cars for a flat fee of 2 weeks later, the conversion from Euros to U.S. dollars
$20 and an hourly charge of $10.25. Therefore, the total is D(x) = 1.245x, where x is the number of Euros and
cost C to rent a car is a function of the hours t the car is D(x) is the equivalent number of U.S. dollars.
rented plus the flat fee.
a. Find the composite function that converts directly
a. Write the formula for the function that models this
from U.S. dollars to U.S. dollars via Euros. Did this
situation.
tourist lose value in the conversion process?
b. Find the total cost to rent a car for 2 days and 7
b. Use (a) to determine how many U.S. dollars the
hours.
tourist would get back at the end of her trip if she
c. Determine how long the car was rented if the bill is
converted an extra $200 when she arrived in Paris.
$432.73.
57. [T] The manager at a skateboard shop pays his
53. [T] A vehicle has a 20-gal tank and gets 15 mpg.
workers a monthly salary S of $750 plus a commission of
The number of miles N that can be driven depends on the
$8.50 for each skateboard they sell.
amount of gas x in the tank.
a. Write a function y = S(x) that models a worker’s
a. Write a formula that models this situation.
b. Determine the number of miles the vehicle can monthly salary based on the number of skateboards
travel on (i) a full tank of gas and (ii) 3/4 of a tank x he or she sells.
of gas. b. Find the approximate monthly salary when a
c. Determine the domain and range of the function. worker sells 25, 40, or 55 skateboards.
d. Determine how many times the driver had to stop c. Use the INTERSECT feature on a graphing
for gas if she has driven a total of 578 mi. calculator to determine the number of skateboards
that must be sold for a worker to earn a monthly
54. [T] The volume V of a sphere depends on the length of income of $1400. (Hint: Find the intersection of the
its radius as V = (4/3)πr 3. Because Earth is not a perfect function and the line y = 1400.)
sphere, we can use the mean radius when measuring from
the center to its surface. The mean radius is the average
distance from the physical center to the surface, based on
a large number of samples. Find the volume of Earth with
mean radius 6.371 × 10 6 m.

55. [T] A certain bacterium grows in culture in a circular

region. The radius of the circle, measured in centimeters,
⎡ ⎤
is given by r(t) = 6 − ⎣5/⎛⎝t 2 + 1⎞⎠⎦, where t is time
measured in hours since a circle of a 1-cm radius of the
bacterium was put into the culture.
a. Express the area of the bacteria as a function of
time.
b. Find the exact and approximate area of the bacterial
culture in 3 hours.
c. Express the circumference of the bacteria as a
function of time.
d. Find the exact and approximate circumference of
the bacteria in 3 hours.

This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col11964/1.12

Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs 35

58. [T] Use a graphing calculator to graph the half-circle

y = 25 − (x − 4) 2. Then, use the INTERCEPT feature
to find the value of both the x - and y -intercepts.
36 Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs

1.2 | Basic Classes of Functions

Learning Objectives
1.2.1 Calculate the slope of a linear function and interpret its meaning.
1.2.2 Recognize the degree of a polynomial.
1.2.3 Find the roots of a quadratic polynomial.
1.2.4 Describe the graphs of basic odd and even polynomial functions.
1.2.5 Identify a rational function.
1.2.6 Describe the graphs of power and root functions.
1.2.7 Explain the difference between algebraic and transcendental functions.
1.2.8 Graph a piecewise-defined function.
1.2.9 Sketch the graph of a function that has been shifted, stretched, or reflected from its initial
graph position.

We have studied the general characteristics of functions, so now let’s examine some specific classes of functions. We
begin by reviewing the basic properties of linear and quadratic functions, and then generalize to include higher-degree
polynomials. By combining root functions with polynomials, we can define general algebraic functions and distinguish
them from the transcendental functions we examine later in this chapter. We finish the section with examples of piecewise-
defined functions and take a look at how to sketch the graph of a function that has been shifted, stretched, or reflected from
its initial form.

Linear Functions and Slope

The easiest type of function to consider is a linear function. Linear functions have the form f (x) = ax + b, where a and
b are constants. In Figure 1.15, we see examples of linear functions when a is positive, negative, and zero. Note that if
a > 0, the graph of the line rises as x increases. In other words, f (x) = ax + b is increasing on (−∞, ∞). If a < 0,
the graph of the line falls as x increases. In this case, f (x) = ax + b is decreasing on (−∞, ∞). If a = 0, the line is
horizontal.

Figure 1.15 These linear functions are increasing or

decreasing on (∞, ∞) and one function is a horizontal line.

As suggested by Figure 1.15, the graph of any linear function is a line. One of the distinguishing features of a line is its
slope. The slope is the change in y for each unit change in x. The slope measures both the steepness and the direction of
a line. If the slope is positive, the line points upward when moving from left to right. If the slope is negative, the line points
downward when moving from left to right. If the slope is zero, the line is horizontal. To calculate the slope of a line, we
need to determine the ratio of the change in y versus the change in x. To do so, we choose any two points (x 1, y 1) and
y −y
(x 2, y 2) on the line and calculate x 2 − x 1 . In Figure 1.16, we see this ratio is independent of the points chosen.
2 1

This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col11964/1.12

Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs 37

Figure 1.16 For any linear function, the slope

(y 2 − y 1)/(x 2 − x 1) is independent of the choice of points
(x 1, y 1) and (x 2, y 2) on the line.

Definition
Consider line L passing through points (x 1, y 1) and (x 2, y 2). Let Δy = y 2 − y 1 and Δx = x 2 − x 1 denote the
changes in y and x, respectively. The slope of the line is

y −y Δy (1.3)
m = x2 − x1 = .
2 1 Δx

We now examine the relationship between slope and the formula for a linear function. Consider the linear function given
by the formula f (x) = ax + b. As discussed earlier, we know the graph of a linear function is given by a line. We
can use our definition of slope to calculate the slope of this line. As shown, we can determine the slope by calculating
(y 2 − y 1)/(x 2 − x 1) for any points (x 1, y 1) and (x 2, y 2) on the line. Evaluating the function f at x = 0, we see
that (0, b) is a point on this line. Evaluating this function at x = 1, we see that (1, a + b) is also a point on this line.
Therefore, the slope of this line is
(a + b) − b
= a.
1−0
We have shown that the coefficient a is the slope of the line. We can conclude that the formula f (x) = ax + b describes
a line with slope a. Furthermore, because this line intersects the y -axis at the point (0, b), we see that the y -intercept
for this linear function is (0, b). We conclude that the formula f (x) = ax + b tells us the slope, a, and the y -intercept,
(0, b), for this line. Since we often use the symbol m to denote the slope of a line, we can write
f (x) = mx + b

to denote the slope-intercept form of a linear function.

Sometimes it is convenient to express a linear function in different ways. For example, suppose the graph of a linear function
passes through the point (x 1, y 1) and the slope of the line is m. Since any other point (x, f (x)) on the graph of f must
satisfy the equation
f (x) − y
m = x − x 1,
1
38 Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs

this linear function can be expressed by writing

f (x) − y 1 = m(x − x 1).

We call this equation the point-slope equation for that linear function.
Since every nonvertical line is the graph of a linear function, the points on a nonvertical line can be described using the
slope-intercept or point-slope equations. However, a vertical line does not represent the graph of a function and cannot be
expressed in either of these forms. Instead, a vertical line is described by the equation x = k for some constant k. Since
neither the slope-intercept form nor the point-slope form allows for vertical lines, we use the notation
ax + by = c,

where a, b are both not zero, to denote the standard form of a line.

Definition
Consider a line passing through the point (x 1, y 1) with slope m. The equation

y − y 1 = m(x − x 1) (1.4)

is the point-slope equation for that line.

Consider a line with slope m and y -intercept (0, b). The equation

y = mx + b (1.5)

is an equation for that line in slope-intercept form.

The standard form of a line is given by the equation
ax + by = c, (1.6)

where a and b are both not zero. This form is more general because it allows for a vertical line, x = k.

Example 1.12

Finding the Slope and Equations of Lines

Consider the line passing through the points (11, −4) and (−4, 5), as shown in Figure 1.17.

This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col11964/1.12

Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs 39

Figure 1.17 Finding the equation of a linear function with a graph that is a line between
two given points.

a. Find the slope of the line.

b. Find an equation for this linear function in point-slope form.
c. Find an equation for this linear function in slope-intercept form.

Solution
a. The slope of the line is
y −y 5 − (−4)
m = x2 − x1 = = − 9 = − 3.
2 1 −4 − 11 15 5
b. To find an equation for the linear function in point-slope form, use the slope m = −3/5 and choose any
point on the line. If we choose the point (11, −4), we get the equation

f (x) + 4 = − 3 (x − 11).
5
c. To find an equation for the linear function in slope-intercept form, solve the equation in part b. for f (x).
When we do this, we get the equation

f (x) = − 3 x + 13 .
5 5

1.9 Consider the line passing through points (−3, 2) and (1, 4). Find the slope of the line.

Find an equation of that line in point-slope form. Find an equation of that line in slope-intercept form.

Example 1.13

A Linear Distance Function

Jessica leaves her house at 5:50 a.m. and goes for a 9-mile run. She returns to her house at 7:08 a.m. Answer the
following questions, assuming Jessica runs at a constant pace.
40 Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs

a. Describe the distance D (in miles) Jessica runs as a linear function of her run time t (in minutes).
b. Sketch a graph of D.
c. Interpret the meaning of the slope.

Solution
a. At time t = 0, Jessica is at her house, so D(0) = 0. At time t = 78 minutes, Jessica has finished
running 9 mi, so D(78) = 9. The slope of the linear function is

m= 9−0 = 3 .
78 − 0 26

The y -intercept is (0, 0), so the equation for this linear function is

D(t) = 3 t.
26
b. To graph D, use the fact that the graph passes through the origin and has slope m = 3/26.

c. The slope m = 3/26 ≈ 0.115 describes the distance (in miles) Jessica runs per minute, or her average
velocity.

Polynomials
A linear function is a special type of a more general class of functions: polynomials. A polynomial function is any function
that can be written in the form
f (x) = a n x n + a n − 1 x n − 1 + … + a 1 x + a 0 (1.7)

for some integer n ≥ 0 and constants a n, a n − 1 ,…,a 0, where a n ≠ 0. In the case when n = 0, we allow for a 0 = 0;
if a 0 = 0, the function f (x) = 0 is called the zero function. The value n is called the degree of the polynomial; the
constant a n is called the leading coefficient. A linear function of the form f (x) = mx + b is a polynomial of degree 1
if m ≠ 0 and degree 0 if m = 0. A polynomial of degree 0 is also called a constant function. A polynomial function
of degree 2 is called a quadratic function. In particular, a quadratic function has the form f (x) = ax 2 + bx + c, where
a ≠ 0. A polynomial function of degree 3 is called a cubic function.

Power Functions
Some polynomial functions are power functions. A power function is any function of the form f (x) = ax b, where a and
b are any real numbers. The exponent in a power function can be any real number, but here we consider the case when the
exponent is a positive integer. (We consider other cases later.) If the exponent is a positive integer, then f (x) = ax n is a
polynomial. If n is even, then f (x) = ax n is an even function because f (−x) = a(−x) n = ax n if n is even. If n is odd,
then f (x) = ax n is an odd function because f (−x) = a(−x) n = −ax n if n is odd (Figure 1.18).

This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col11964/1.12

Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs 41

Figure 1.18 (a) For any even integer n, f (x) = ax n is an even function. (b) For any odd
integer n, f (x) = ax n is an odd function.

Behavior at Infinity
To determine the behavior of a function f as the inputs approach infinity, we look at the values f (x) as the inputs,
x, become larger. For some functions, the values of f (x) approach a finite number. For example, for the function
f (x) = 2 + 1/x, the values 1/x become closer and closer to zero for all values of x as they get larger and larger. For this
function, we say “ f (x) approaches two as x goes to infinity,” and we write f (x) → 2 as x → ∞. The line y = 2 is a
horizontal asymptote for the function f (x) = 2 + 1/x because the graph of the function gets closer to the line as x gets
larger.
For other functions, the values f (x) may not approach a finite number but instead may become larger for all values of x
as they get larger. In that case, we say “ f (x) approaches infinity as x approaches infinity,” and we write f (x) → ∞ as
x → ∞. For example, for the function f (x) = 3x 2, the outputs f (x) become larger as the inputs x get larger. We can
conclude that the function f (x) = 3x 2 approaches infinity as x approaches infinity, and we write 3x 2 → ∞ as x → ∞.
The behavior as x → −∞ and the meaning of f (x) → −∞ as x → ∞ or x → −∞ can be defined similarly. We can
describe what happens to the values of f (x) as x → ∞ and as x → −∞ as the end behavior of the function.

To understand the end behavior for polynomial functions, we can focus on quadratic and cubic functions. The behavior for
higher-degree polynomials can be analyzed similarly. Consider a quadratic function f (x) = ax 2 + bx + c. If a > 0, the
values f (x) → ∞ as x → ±∞. If a < 0, the values f (x) → −∞ as x → ±∞. Since the graph of a quadratic function
is a parabola, the parabola opens upward if a > 0; the parabola opens downward if a < 0. (See Figure 1.19(a).)

Now consider a cubic function f (x) = ax 3 + bx 2 + cx + d. If a > 0, then f (x) → ∞ as x → ∞ and f (x) → −∞
as x → −∞. If a < 0, then f (x) → −∞ as x → ∞ and f (x) → ∞ as x → −∞. As we can see from both of these
graphs, the leading term of the polynomial determines the end behavior. (See Figure 1.19(b).)
42 Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs

Figure 1.19 (a) For a quadratic function, if the leading coefficient a > 0, the parabola opens
upward. If a < 0, the parabola opens downward. (b) For a cubic function f , if the leading
coefficient a > 0, the values f (x) → ∞ as x → ∞ and the values f (x) → −∞ as
x → −∞. If the leading coefficient a < 0, the opposite is true.

Zeros of Polynomial Functions

Another characteristic of the graph of a polynomial function is where it intersects the x -axis. To determine where a function
f intersects the x -axis, we need to solve the equation f (x) = 0 for x. In the case of the linear function f (x) = mx + b,
the x -intercept is given by solving the equation mx + b = 0. In this case, we see that the x -intercept is given by
(−b/m, 0). In the case of a quadratic function, finding the x -intercept(s) requires finding the zeros of a quadratic equation:
ax 2 + bx + c = 0. In some cases, it is easy to factor the polynomial ax 2 + bx + c to find the zeros. If not, we make use
of the quadratic formula.

Rule: The Quadratic Formula

Consider the quadratic equation
ax 2 + bx + c = 0,
where a ≠ 0. The solutions of this equation are given by the quadratic formula

2 (1.8)
x = −b ± b − 4ac .
2a

If the discriminant b 2 − 4ac > 0, this formula tells us there are two real numbers that satisfy the quadratic equation.
If b 2 − 4ac = 0, this formula tells us there is only one solution, and it is a real number. If b 2 − 4ac < 0, no real
numbers satisfy the quadratic equation.

In the case of higher-degree polynomials, it may be more complicated to determine where the graph intersects the x -axis.
In some instances, it is possible to find the x -intercepts by factoring the polynomial to find its zeros. In other cases, it is
impossible to calculate the exact values of the x -intercepts. However, as we see later in the text, in cases such as this, we
can use analytical tools to approximate (to a very high degree) where the x -intercepts are located. Here we focus on the
graphs of polynomials for which we can calculate their zeros explicitly.

This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col11964/1.12

Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs 43

Example 1.14

Graphing Polynomial Functions

For the following functions a. and b., i. describe the behavior of f (x) as x → ±∞, ii. find all zeros of f , and
iii. sketch a graph of f .

a. f (x) = −2x 2 + 4x − 1

b. f (x) = x 3 − 3x 2 − 4x

Solution
a. The function f (x) = −2x 2 + 4x − 1 is a quadratic function.

i. Because a = −2 < 0, as x → ±∞, f (x) → −∞.

ii. To find the zeros of f , use the quadratic formula. The zeros are

−4 ± 4 2 − 4(−2)(−1) −4 ± 8 −4 ± 2 2 2 ± 2
x= = = = .
2(−2) −4 −4 2
iii. To sketch the graph of f , use the information from your previous answers and combine it with
the fact that the graph is a parabola opening downward.

b. The function f (x) = x 3 − 3x 2 − 4x is a cubic function.

i. Because a = 1 > 0, as x → ∞, f (x) → ∞. As x → −∞, f (x) → −∞.

ii. To find the zeros of f , we need to factor the polynomial. First, when we factor x out of all the
terms, we find
f (x) = x(x 2 − 3x − 4).

Then, when we factor the quadratic function x 2 − 3x − 4, we find

f (x) = x(x − 4)(x + 1).

44 Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs

Therefore, the zeros of f are x = 0, 4, −1.

iii. Combining the results from parts i. and ii., draw a rough sketch of f .

1.10 Consider the quadratic function f (x) = 3x 2 − 6x + 2. Find the zeros of f . Does the parabola open
upward or downward?

Mathematical Models
A large variety of real-world situations can be described using mathematical models. A mathematical model is a method of
simulating real-life situations with mathematical equations. Physicists, engineers, economists, and other researchers develop
models by combining observation with quantitative data to develop equations, functions, graphs, and other mathematical
tools to describe the behavior of various systems accurately. Models are useful because they help predict future outcomes.
Examples of mathematical models include the study of population dynamics, investigations of weather patterns, and
predictions of product sales.
As an example, let’s consider a mathematical model that a company could use to describe its revenue for the sale of a
particular item. The amount of revenue R a company receives for the sale of n items sold at a price of p dollars per item
is described by the equation R = p · n. The company is interested in how the sales change as the price of the item changes.
Suppose the data in Table 1.6 show the number of units a company sells as a function of the price per item.

This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col11964/1.12

Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs 45

p 6 8 10 12 14

n 19.4 18.5 16.2 13.8 12.2

Table 1.6 Number of Units Sold n (in Thousands) as a

Function of Price per Unit p (in Dollars)

In Figure 1.20, we see the graph the number of units sold (in thousands) as a function of price (in dollars). We note from
the shape of the graph that the number of units sold is likely a linear function of price per item, and the data can be closely
approximated by the linear function n = −1.04p + 26 for 0 ≤ p ≤ 25, where n predicts the number of units sold in
thousands. Using this linear function, the revenue (in thousands of dollars) can be estimated by the quadratic function
R(p) = p · ⎛⎝−1.04p + 26⎞⎠ = −1.04p 2 + 26p

for 0 ≤ p ≤ 25. In Example 1.15, we use this quadratic function to predict the amount of revenue the company receives
depending on the price the company charges per item. Note that we cannot conclude definitively the actual number of units
sold for values of p, for which no data are collected. However, given the other data values and the graph shown, it seems
reasonable that the number of units sold (in thousands) if the price charged is p dollars may be close to the values predicted
by the linear function n = −1.04p + 26.

Figure 1.20 The data collected for the number of items sold as a function of
price is roughly linear. We use the linear function n = −1.04p + 26 to estimate
this function.

Example 1.15
46 Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs

Maximizing Revenue

A company is interested in predicting the amount of revenue it will receive depending on the price it charges for a
particular item. Using the data from Table 1.6, the company arrives at the following quadratic function to model
revenue R (in thousands of dollars) as a function of price per item p:

R(p) = p · ⎛⎝−1.04p + 26⎞⎠ = −1.04p 2 + 26p

for 0 ≤ p ≤ 25.

a. Predict the revenue if the company sells the item at a price of p = $5 and p = $17.

b. Find the zeros of this function and interpret the meaning of the zeros.
c. Sketch a graph of R.
d. Use the graph to determine the value of p that maximizes revenue. Find the maximum revenue.

Solution
a. Evaluating the revenue function at p = 5 and p = 17, we can conclude that

R(5) = −1.04(5) 2 + 26(5) = 104, so revenue = $104,000;

R(17) = −1.04(17) 2 + 26(17) = 141.44, so revenue = $141,440.

b. The zeros of this function can be found by solving the equation −1.04p 2 + 26p = 0. When we factor
the quadratic expression, we get p⎛⎝−1.04p + 26⎞⎠ = 0. The solutions to this equation are given by
p = 0, 25. For these values of p, the revenue is zero. When p = $0, the revenue is zero because the
company is giving away its merchandise for free. When p = $25, the revenue is zero because the price
is too high, and no one will buy any items.
c. Knowing the fact that the function is quadratic, we also know the graph is a parabola. Since the
leading coefficient is negative, the parabola opens downward. One property of parabolas is that they are
symmetric about the axis, so since the zeros are at p = 0 and p = 25, the parabola must be symmetric
about the line halfway between them, or p = 12.5.

This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col11964/1.12

Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs 47

d. The function is a parabola with zeros at p = 0 and p = 25, and it is symmetric about the line
p = 12.5, so the maximum revenue occurs at a price of p = $12.50 per item. At that price, the revenue
is R(p) = −1.04(12.5) 2 + 26(12.5) = $162, 500.

Algebraic Functions
By allowing for quotients and fractional powers in polynomial functions, we create a larger class of functions. An algebraic
function is one that involves addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, rational powers, and roots. Two types of
algebraic functions are rational functions and root functions.
Just as rational numbers are quotients of integers, rational functions are quotients of polynomials. In particular, a rational
function is any function of the form f (x) = p(x)/q(x), where p(x) and q(x) are polynomials. For example,

f (x) = 3x − 1 and g(x) = 4

5x + 2 x2 + 1

are rational functions. A root function is a power function of the form f (x) = x 1/n, where n is a positive integer greater
than one. For example, f (x) = x 1/2 = x is the square-root function and g(x) = x 1/3 = 3 x is the cube-root function. By
allowing for compositions of root functions and rational functions, we can create other algebraic functions. For example,
f (x) = 4 − x 2 is an algebraic function.
48 Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs

Example 1.16

Finding Domain and Range for Algebraic Functions

For each of the following functions, find the domain and range.

a. f (x) = 3x − 1
5x + 2

b. To find the domain of f , we need 4 – x 2 ≥ 0 . Or, 4 ≥ x 2 Or x 2 ≤ 4 , the solution to which is

– 2 ≤ x ≤ 2 . Therefore, the domain is {x| – 2 ≤ x ≤ 2} . If – 2 ≤ x ≤ 2 , then 0 ≤ 4 – x 2 ≤ 4 .
Therefore, 0 ≤ 4 – x 2 ≤ 2 and the range of f is y|0 ≤ x ≤ 2 .
⎧ ⎫
⎨ ⎬
⎩ ⎭

Solution
a. It is not possible to divide by zero, so the domain is the set of real numbers x such that x ≠ −2/5. To
find the range, we need to find the values y for which there exists a real number x such that

y = 3x − 1 .
5x + 2

When we multiply both sides of this equation by 5x + 2, we see that x must satisfy the equation
5xy + 2y = 3x − 1.

From this equation, we can see that x must satisfy

2y + 1 = x(3 − 5y).

If y = 3/5, this equation has no solution. On the other hand, as long as y ≠ 3/5,
2y + 1
x=
3 − 5y

satisfies this equation. We can conclude that the range of f is y|y ≠ 3/5 .
⎧ ⎫
⎨ ⎬
⎩ ⎭

b. To find the domain of f, we need 4 − x 2 ≥ 0. When we factor, we write

4 − x 2 = (2 − x)(2 + x) ≥ 0. This inequality holds if and only if both terms are positive or both terms
are negative. For both terms to be positive, we need to find x such that
2−x≥0 and 2 + x ≥ 0.

These two inequalities reduce to 2 ≥ x and x ≥ −2. Therefore, the set {x| − 2 ≤ x ≤ 2} must be part
of the domain. For both terms to be negative, we need
2−x≤0 and 2 + x ≥ 0.

These two inequalities also reduce to 2 ≤ x and x ≥ −2. There are no values of x that satisfy both of
these inequalities. Thus, we can conclude the domain of this function is {x| − 2 ≤ x ≤ 2}.

If −2 ≤ x ≤ 2, then 0 ≤ 4 − x 2 ≤ 4. Therefore, 0 ≤ 4 − x 2 ≤ 2, and the range of f is

y|0 ≤ y ≤ 2 .
⎧ ⎫
⎨ ⎬
⎩ ⎭

This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col11964/1.12

Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs 49

1.11 Find the domain and range for the function f (x) = (5x + 2)/(2x − 1).

The root functions f (x) = x 1/n have defining characteristics depending on whether n is odd or even. For all even integers
n ≥ 2, the domain of f (x) = x 1/n is the interval [0, ∞). For all odd integers n ≥ 1, the domain of f (x) = x 1/n is
the set of all real numbers. Since x 1/n = (−x) 1/n for odd integers n, f (x) = x 1/n is an odd function if n is odd. See the
graphs of root functions for different values of n in Figure 1.21.

n n
Figure 1.21 (a) If n is even, the domain of f (x) = x is [0, ∞). (b) If n is odd, the domain of f (x) = x is
(−∞, ∞) and the function f (x) = n x is an odd function.

Example 1.17

Finding Domains for Algebraic Functions

For each of the following functions, determine the domain of the function.

a. f (x) = 3
x2 − 1

b. f (x) = 2x2+ 5
3x + 4

c. f (x) = 4 − 3x
3
d. f (x) = 2x − 1

Solution
a. You cannot divide by zero, so the domain is the set of values x such that x 2 − 1 ≠ 0. Therefore, the
domain is {x|x ≠ ±1}.

b. You need to determine the values of x for which the denominator is zero. Since 3x 2 + 4 ≥ 4 for all real
numbers x, the denominator is never zero. Therefore, the domain is (−∞, ∞).

c. Since the square root of a negative number is not a real number, the domain is the set of values x for
50 Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs

which 4 − 3x ≥ 0. Therefore, the domain is {x|x ≤ 4/3}.

d. The cube root is defined for all real numbers, so the domain is the interval (−∞, ∞).

1.12 Find the domain for each of the following functions: f (x) = (5 − 2x)/(x 2 + 2) and g(x) = 5x − 1.

Transcendental Functions
Thus far, we have discussed algebraic functions. Some functions, however, cannot be described by basic algebraic
operations. These functions are known as transcendental functions because they are said to “transcend,” or go beyond,
algebra. The most common transcendental functions are trigonometric, exponential, and logarithmic functions. A
trigonometric function relates the ratios of two sides of a right triangle. They are sinx, cosx, tanx, cotx, secx, and cscx.
(We discuss trigonometric functions later in the chapter.) An exponential function is a function of the form f (x) = b x,
where the base b > 0, b ≠ 1. A logarithmic function is a function of the form f (x) = log b(x) for some constant
b > 0, b ≠ 1, where log b (x) = y if and only if b y = x. (We also discuss exponential and logarithmic functions later in
the chapter.)

Example 1.18

Classifying Algebraic and Transcendental Functions

Classify each of the following functions, a. through c., as algebraic or transcendental.

3
a. f (x) = x + 1
4x + 2
2
b. f (x) = 2 x

c. f (x) = sin(2x)

Solution
a. Since this function involves basic algebraic operations only, it is an algebraic function.
b. This function cannot be written as a formula that involves only basic algebraic operations, so it is
transcendental. (Note that algebraic functions can only have powers that are rational numbers.)
c. As in part b., this function cannot be written using a formula involving basic algebraic operations only;
therefore, this function is transcendental.

1.13 Is f (x) = x/2 an algebraic or a transcendental function?

Piecewise-Defined Functions
Sometimes a function is defined by different formulas on different parts of its domain. A function with this property is
known as a piecewise-defined function. The absolute value function is an example of a piecewise-defined function because

This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col11964/1.12

Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs 51

the formula changes with the sign of x:

⎧−x, x < 0
f (x) = ⎨ .
⎩ x, x ≥ 0

Other piecewise-defined functions may be represented by completely different formulas, depending on the part of the
domain in which a point falls. To graph a piecewise-defined function, we graph each part of the function in its respective
domain, on the same coordinate system. If the formula for a function is different for x < a and x > a, we need to pay
special attention to what happens at x = a when we graph the function. Sometimes the graph needs to include an open or
closed circle to indicate the value of the function at x = a. We examine this in the next example.

Example 1.19

Graphing a Piecewise-Defined Function

Sketch a graph of the following piecewise-defined function:

⎧x + 3, x<1
f (x) = ⎨ .
⎩(x − 2) 2, x≥1

Solution
Graph the linear function y = x + 3 on the interval (−∞, 1) and graph the quadratic function y = (x − 2) 2
on the interval [1, ∞). Since the value of the function at x = 1 is given by the formula f (x) = (x − 2) 2, we
see that f (1) = 1. To indicate this on the graph, we draw a closed circle at the point (1, 1). The value of the
function is given by f (x) = x + 2 for all x < 1, but not at x = 1. To indicate this on the graph, we draw an
open circle at (1, 4).

Figure 1.22 This piecewise-defined function is linear for

x < 1 and quadratic for x ≥ 1.

1.14 Sketch a graph of the function

⎧2 − x, x ≤ 2
f (x) = ⎨ .
⎩x + 2, x > 2
52 Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs

Example 1.20

Parking Fees Described by a Piecewise-Defined Function

In a big city, drivers are charged variable rates for parking in a parking garage. They are charged $10 for the first
hour or any part of the first hour and an additional $2 for each hour or part thereof up to a maximum of $30 for
the day. The parking garage is open from 6 a.m. to 12 midnight.
a. Write a piecewise-defined function that describes the cost C to park in the parking garage as a function
of hours parked x.
b. Sketch a graph of this function C(x).

Solution
a. Since the parking garage is open 18 hours each day, the domain for this function is {x|0 < x ≤ 18}. The
cost to park a car at this parking garage can be described piecewise by the function
⎧ 10, 0 < x ≤ 1
⎪ 12, 1 < x ≤ 2
⎪ 14, 2 < x ≤ 3
C(x) = ⎨ .
⎪ 16, 3 < x ≤ 4
⎪ ⋮
⎩30, 10 < x ≤ 18
b. The graph of the function consists of several horizontal line segments.

1.15 The cost of mailing a letter is a function of the weight of the letter. Suppose the cost of mailing a letter is
49¢ for the first ounce and 21¢ for each additional ounce. Write a piecewise-defined function describing the
cost C as a function of the weight x for 0 < x ≤ 3, where C is measured in cents and x is measured in
ounces.

Transformations of Functions
We have seen several cases in which we have added, subtracted, or multiplied constants to form variations of simple

This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col11964/1.12

Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs 53

functions. In the previous example, for instance, we subtracted 2 from the argument of the function y = x 2 to get the
function f (x) = (x − 2) 2. This subtraction represents a shift of the function y = x 2 two units to the right. A shift,
horizontally or vertically, is a type of transformation of a function. Other transformations include horizontal and vertical
scalings, and reflections about the axes.
A vertical shift of a function occurs if we add or subtract the same constant to each output y. For c > 0, the graph of
f (x) + c is a shift of the graph of f (x) up c units, whereas the graph of f (x) − c is a shift of the graph of f (x) down
c units. For example, the graph of the function f (x) = x 3 + 4 is the graph of y = x 3 shifted up 4 units; the graph of the
function f (x) = x 3 − 4 is the graph of y = x 3 shifted down 4 units (Figure 1.23).

Figure 1.23 (a) For c > 0, the graph of y = f (x) + c is a vertical shift up c units of
the graph of y = f (x). (b) For c > 0, the graph of y = f (x) − c is a vertical shift down
c units of the graph of y = f (x).

A horizontal shift of a function occurs if we add or subtract the same constant to each input x. For c > 0, the graph of
f (x + c) is a shift of the graph of f (x) to the left c units; the graph of f (x − c) is a shift of the graph of f (x) to the
right c units. Why does the graph shift left when adding a constant and shift right when subtracting a constant? To answer
this question, let’s look at an example.
Consider the function f (x) = |x + 3| and evaluate this function at x − 3. Since f (x − 3) = |x| and x − 3 < x, the graph
of f (x) = |x + 3| is the graph of y = |x| shifted left 3 units. Similarly, the graph of f (x) = |x − 3| is the graph of y = |x|
shifted right 3 units (Figure 1.24).
54 Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs

Figure 1.24 (a) For c > 0, the graph of y = f (x + c) is a horizontal shift left c units of the graph of y = f (x). (b) For
c > 0, the graph of y = f (x − c) is a horizontal shift right c units of the graph of y = f (x).

A vertical scaling of a graph occurs if we multiply all outputs y of a function by the same positive constant. For c > 0,
the graph of the function c f (x) is the graph of f (x) scaled vertically by a factor of c. If c > 1, the values of the
outputs for the function c f (x) are larger than the values of the outputs for the function f (x); therefore, the graph has been
stretched vertically. If 0 < c < 1, then the outputs of the function c f (x) are smaller, so the graph has been compressed.
For example, the graph of the function f (x) = 3x 2 is the graph of y = x 2 stretched vertically by a factor of 3, whereas the
graph of f (x) = x 2 /3 is the graph of y = x 2 compressed vertically by a factor of 3 (Figure 1.25).

Figure 1.25 (a) If c > 1, the graph of y = c f (x) is a vertical stretch of the graph
of y = f (x). (b) If 0 < c < 1, the graph of y = c f (x) is a vertical compression of
the graph of y = f (x).

The horizontal scaling of a function occurs if we multiply the inputs x by the same positive constant. For c > 0, the
graph of the function f (cx) is the graph of f (x) scaled horizontally by a factor of c. If c > 1, the graph of f (cx) is the
graph of f (x) compressed horizontally. If 0 < c < 1, the graph of f (cx) is the graph of f (x) stretched horizontally. For

This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col11964/1.12

Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs 55

example, consider the function f (x) = 2x and evaluate f at x/2. Since f (x/2) = x, the graph of f (x) = 2x is the
graph of y = x compressed horizontally. The graph of y = x/2 is a horizontal stretch of the graph of y = x (Figure
1.26).

Figure 1.26 (a) If c > 1, the graph of y = f (cx) is a horizontal compression of the graph
of y = f (x). (b) If 0 < c < 1, the graph of y = f (cx) is a horizontal stretch of the graph of
y = f (x).

We have explored what happens to the graph of a function f when we multiply f by a constant c > 0 to get a new
function c f (x). We have also discussed what happens to the graph of a function f when we multiply the independent
variable x by c > 0 to get a new function f (cx). However, we have not addressed what happens to the graph of the
function if the constant c is negative. If we have a constant c < 0, we can write c as a positive number multiplied by
−1; but, what kind of transformation do we get when we multiply the function or its argument by −1 ? When we multiply
all the outputs by −1, we get a reflection about the x -axis. When we multiply all inputs by −1, we get a reflection
about the y -axis. For example, the graph of f (x) = −(x 3 + 1) is the graph of y = (x 3 + 1) reflected about the x -axis.
The graph of f (x) = (−x) 3 + 1 is the graph of y = x 3 + 1 reflected about the y -axis (Figure 1.27).
56 Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs

Figure 1.27 (a) The graph of y = − f (x) is the graph of

y = f (x) reflected about the x -axis. (b) The graph of
y = f (−x) is the graph of y = f (x) reflected about the
y -axis.

If the graph of a function consists of more than one transformation of another graph, it is important to transform the graph
in the correct order. Given a function f (x), the graph of the related function y = c f ⎛⎝a(x + b)⎞⎠ + d can be obtained from
the graph of y = f (x) by performing the transformations in the following order.

1. Horizontal shift of the graph of y = f (x). If b > 0, shift left. If b < 0, shift right.

2. Horizontal scaling of the graph of y = f (x + b) by a factor of |a|. If a < 0, reflect the graph about the y -axis.

3. Vertical scaling of the graph of y = f (a(x + b)) by a factor of |c|. If c < 0, reflect the graph about the x -axis.

4. Vertical shift of the graph of y = c f (a(x + b)). If d > 0, shift up. If d < 0, shift down.

We can summarize the different transformations and their related effects on the graph of a function in the following table.

This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col11964/1.12

Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs 57

Transformation of f(c > 0) Effect on the graph of f

f (x) + c Vertical shift up c units

f (x) − c Vertical shift down c units

f (x + c) Shift left by c units

f (x − c) Shift right by c units

Vertical stretch if c > 1;

c f (x)
vertical compression if 0 < c < 1

f (cx) Horizontal stretch if 0 < c < 1; horizontal compression if c > 1

− f (x) Reflection about the x -axis

f (−x) Reflection about the y -axis

Table 1.7 Transformations of Functions

Example 1.21

Transforming a Function

For each of the following functions, a. and b., sketch a graph by using a sequence of transformations of a well-
known function.
a. f (x) = −|x + 2| − 3

b. f (x) = 3 −x + 1

Solution
a. Starting with the graph of y = |x|, shift 2 units to the left, reflect about the x -axis, and then shift down
3 units.
58 Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs

Figure 1.28 The function f (x) = −|x + 2| − 3 can be

viewed as a sequence of three transformations of the function
y = |x|.

b. Starting with the graph of y = x, reflect about the y -axis, stretch the graph vertically by a factor of 3,
and move up 1 unit.

Figure 1.29 The function f (x) = 3 −x + 1 can be viewed

as a sequence of three transformations of the function y = x.

1.16 Describe how the function f (x) = −(x + 1) 2 − 4 can be graphed using the graph of y = x 2 and a
sequence of transformations.

This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col11964/1.12

Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs 59

1.2 EXERCISES
For the following exercises, for each pair of points, a. 79. 4y + 24 = 0
find the slope of the line passing through the points and
b. indicate whether the line is increasing, decreasing, 80. 8x − 4 = 0
horizontal, or vertical.
81. 2x + 3y = 6
59. (−2, 4) and (1, 1)
82. 6x − 5y + 15 = 0
60. (−1, 4) and (3, −1)
For the following exercises, for each polynomial, a. find the
61. (3, 5) and (−1, 2)
degree; b. find the zeros, if any; c. find the y -intercept(s),

62. (6, 4) and (4, −3) if any; d. use the leading coefficient to determine the
graph’s end behavior; and e. determine algebraically
whether the polynomial is even, odd, or neither.
63. (2, 3) and (5, 7)
83. f (x) = 2x 2 − 3x − 5
64. (1, 9) and (−8, 5)

65. (2, 4) and (1, 4) 84. f (x) = −3x 2 + 6x

66. (1, 4) and (1, 0) 85. f (x) = 1 x 2 − 1

2
For the following exercises, write the equation of the line
86. f (x) = x 3 + 3x 2 − x − 3
satisfying the given conditions in slope-intercept form.

67. Slope = −6, passes through (1, 3) 87. f (x) = 3x − x 3

68. Slope = 3, passes through (−3, 2) For the following exercises, use the graph of f (x) = x 2 to
graph each transformed function g.
69. Slope = 1 , passes through (0, 4)
3
88. g(x) = x 2 − 1
70. Slope = 2 , x -intercept = 8
5
89. g(x) = (x + 3) 2 + 1
71. Passing through (2, 1) and (−2, −1)
For the following exercises, use the graph of f (x) = x to
72. Passing through (−3, 7) and (1, 2) graph each transformed function g.

73. x -intercept = 5 and y -intercept = −3 90. g(x) = x + 2

74. x -intercept = −6 and y -intercept = 9 91. g(x) = − x − 1

For the following exercises, for each linear equation, a. give For the following exercises, use the graph of y = f (x) to
the slope m and y -intercept b, if any, and b. graph the line.
graph each transformed function g.
75. y = 2x − 3

76. y = − 1 x + 1
7

77. f (x) = −6x

78. f (x) = −5x + 4

60 Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs

103. [T] A company purchases some computer equipment

for $20,500. At the end of a 3-year period, the value of the
equipment has decreased linearly to $12,300.
a. Find a function y = V(t) that determines the value
V of the equipment at the end of t years.
b. Find and interpret the meaning of the x - and y
-intercepts for this situation.
c. What is the value of the equipment at the end of 5
years?
d. When will the value of the equipment be $3000?

104. [T] Total online shopping during the Christmas

holidays has increased dramatically during the past 5 years.
In 2012 (t = 0), total online holiday sales were $42.3
billion, whereas in 2013 they were $48.1 billion.
a. Find a linear function S that estimates the total
online holiday sales in the year t.
b. Interpret the slope of the graph of S.
92. g(x) = f (x) + 1 c. Use part a. to predict the year when online shopping
during Christmas will reach $60 billion.
93. g(x) = f (x − 1) + 2
105. [T] A family bakery makes cupcakes and sells them
For the following exercises, for each of the piecewise- at local outdoor festivals. For a music festival, there is a
defined functions, a. evaluate at the given values of the fixed cost of $125 to set up a cupcake stand. The owner
independent variable and b. sketch the graph. estimates that it costs $0.75 to make each cupcake. The
owner is interested in determining the total cost C as a
⎧ 4x + 3, x ≤ 0 function of number of cupcakes made.
94. f (x) = ⎨ ; f (−3); f (0); f (2)
⎩−x + 1, x > 0 a. Find a linear function that relates cost C to x, the
number of cupcakes made.
⎧x 2 − 3, x < 0 b. Find the cost to bake 160 cupcakes.
95. f (x) = ⎨ ; f (−4); f (0); f (2) c. If the owner sells the cupcakes for $1.50 apiece,
⎩4x − 3, x ≥ 0
how many cupcakes does she need to sell to start
making profit? (Hint: Use the INTERSECTION
⎧x + 1, x ≤ 5
96. h(x) = ⎨ ; h(0); h(π); h(5) function on a calculator to find this number.)
⎩ 4, x > 5
106. [T] A house purchased for $250,000 is expected to
⎧ 3 ,x≠2 be worth twice its purchase price in 18 years.
97. g(x) = ⎨ x − 2 ; g(0); g(−4); g(2) a. Find a linear function that models the price P of
⎩4, x = 2 the house versus the number of years t since the
original purchase.
For the following exercises, determine whether the b. Interpret the slope of the graph of P.
statement is true or false. Explain why. c. Find the price of the house 15 years from when it
was originally purchased.
98. f (x) = (4x + 1)/(7x − 2) is a transcendental
107. [T] A car was purchased for $26,000. The value of
function.
the car depreciates by $1500 per year.
a. Find a linear function that models the value V of the
99. g(x) = 3 x is an odd root function car after t years.
b. Find and interpret V(4).
100. A logarithmic function is an algebraic function.
108. [T] A condominium in an upscale part of the city was
101. A function of the form f (x) = x b, where b is a purchased for $432,000. In 35 years it is worth $60,500.
real valued constant, is an exponential function. Find the rate of depreciation.

102. The domain of an even root function is all real 109. [T] The total cost C (in thousands of dollars) to
numbers. produce a certain item is modeled by the function
C(x) = 10.50x + 28,500, where x is the number of items
produced. Determine the cost to produce 175 items.

This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col11964/1.12

Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs 61

110. [T] A professor asks her class to report the amount

of time t they spent writing two assignments. Most students
report that it takes them about 45 minutes to type a four-
page assignment and about 1.5 hours to type a nine-page
assignment.
a. Find the linear function y = N(t) that models this
situation, where N is the number of pages typed
and t is the time in minutes.
b. Use part a. to determine how many pages can be
typed in 2 hours.
c. Use part a. to determine how long it takes to type a
20-page assignment.

111. [T] The output (as a percent of total capacity) of

nuclear power plants in the United States can be modeled
by the function P(t) = 1.8576t + 68.052, where t is time
in years and t = 0 corresponds to the beginning of 2000.
Use the model to predict the percentage output in 2015.

112. [T] The admissions office at a public university

estimates that 65% of the students offered admission to the
class of 2019 will actually enroll.
a. Find the linear function y = N(x), where N is
the number of students that actually enroll and x is
the number of all students offered admission to the
class of 2019.
b. If the university wants the 2019 freshman class size
to be 1350, determine how many students should be
admitted.
62 Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs

1.3 | Trigonometric Functions

Learning Objectives
1.3.1 Convert angle measures between degrees and radians.
1.3.2 Recognize the triangular and circular definitions of the basic trigonometric functions.
1.3.3 Write the basic trigonometric identities.
1.3.4 Identify the graphs and periods of the trigonometric functions.
1.3.5 Describe the shift of a sine or cosine graph from the equation of the function.

Trigonometric functions are used to model many phenomena, including sound waves, vibrations of strings, alternating
electrical current, and the motion of pendulums. In fact, almost any repetitive, or cyclical, motion can be modeled by some
combination of trigonometric functions. In this section, we define the six basic trigonometric functions and look at some of
the main identities involving these functions.

Radian Measure
To use trigonometric functions, we first must understand how to measure the angles. Although we can use both radians and
degrees, radians are a more natural measurement because they are related directly to the unit circle, a circle with radius 1.
The radian measure of an angle is defined as follows. Given an angle θ, let s be the length of the corresponding arc on
the unit circle (Figure 1.30). We say the angle corresponding to the arc of length 1 has radian measure 1.

Figure 1.30 The radian measure of an angle θ is the arc

length s of the associated arc on the unit circle.

Since an angle of 360° corresponds to the circumference of a circle, or an arc of length 2π, we conclude that an angle
with a degree measure of 360° has a radian measure of 2π. Similarly, we see that 180° is equivalent to π radians. Table
1.8 shows the relationship between common degree and radian values.

This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col11964/1.12

Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs 63

Degrees Radians Degrees Radians

0 0 120 2π/3

30 π/6 135 3π/4

45 π/4 150 5π/6

60 π/3 180 π

90 π/2

Table 1.8 Common Angles Expressed in Degrees and

Radians

Example 1.22

Converting between Radians and Degrees

a. Express 225° using radians.

b. Express 5π/3 rad using degrees.

Solution
Use the fact that 180° is equivalent to π radians as a conversion factor: 1 = π rad = 180° .
180° π rad

a. 225° = 225° · π = 5π rad

180° 4

b. 5π rad = 5π · 180° = 300°

3 3 π

1.17 Express 210° using radians. Express 11π/6 rad using degrees.

The Six Basic Trigonometric Functions

Trigonometric functions allow us to use angle measures, in radians or degrees, to find the coordinates of a point on any
circle—not only on a unit circle—or to find an angle given a point on a circle. They also define the relationship among the
sides and angles of a triangle.
To define the trigonometric functions, first consider the unit circle centered at the origin and a point P = (x, y) on the unit
circle. Let θ be an angle with an initial side that lies along the positive x -axis and with a terminal side that is the line
segment OP. An angle in this position is said to be in standard position (Figure 1.31). We can then define the values of
the six trigonometric functions for θ in terms of the coordinates x and y.
64 Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs

Figure 1.31 The angle θ is in standard position. The values

of the trigonometric functions for θ are defined in terms of the
coordinates x and y.

Definition
Let P = (x, y) be a point on the unit circle centered at the origin O. Let θ be an angle with an initial side along the
positive x -axis and a terminal side given by the line segment OP. The trigonometric functions are then defined as

sinθ = y cscθ = 1y (1.9)

cosθ = x secθ = 1x
y
tanθ = x cot θ = xy

If x = 0, secθ and tanθ are undefined. If y = 0, then cot θ and cscθ are undefined.

We can see that for a point P = (x, y) on a circle of radius r with a corresponding angle θ, the coordinates x and y
satisfy

cosθ = xr
x = r cosθ
y
sinθ = r
y = r sinθ.

The values of the other trigonometric functions can be expressed in terms of x, y, and r (Figure 1.32).

This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col11964/1.12

Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs 65

Figure 1.32 For a point P = (x, y) on a circle of radius r,

the coordinates x and y satisfy x = r cosθ and y = r sinθ.

Table 1.9 shows the values of sine and cosine at the major angles in the first quadrant. From this table, we can determine
the values of sine and cosine at the corresponding angles in the other quadrants. The values of the other trigonometric
functions are calculated easily from the values of sinθ and cosθ.

θ sinθ cosθ

0 0 1

π 1 3
6 2 2

π 2 2
4 2 2

π 3 1
3 2 2

π
2 1 0

Table 1.9 Values of sinθ

and cosθ at Major Angles
θ in the First Quadrant

Example 1.23

Evaluating Trigonometric Functions

Evaluate each of the following expressions.

⎛ ⎞
a. sin⎝2π ⎠
3
⎛ ⎞
b. cos⎝− 5π ⎠
6
66 Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs

⎛ ⎞
c. tan⎝15π ⎠
4

Solution
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
a. On the unit circle, the angle θ = 2π corresponds to the point ⎝− 1 , 3 ⎠. Therefore, sin⎝2π ⎠ = y = 3 .
3 2 2 3 2

b. An angle θ = − 5π corresponds to a revolution in the negative direction, as shown. Therefore,

6
⎛ ⎞
cos⎝− 5π ⎠ = x = − 3 .
6 2

c. An angle θ = 15π = 2π + 7π . Therefore, this angle corresponds to more than one revolution, as shown.
4 4
⎛ ⎞
Knowing the fact that an angle of 7π corresponds to the point ⎝ 2 , − 2 ⎠, we can conclude that
4 2 2
⎛ ⎞ y
tan⎝15π ⎠ = x = −1.
4

This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col11964/1.12

Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs 67

1.18 Evaluate cos(3π/4) and sin(−π/6).

As mentioned earlier, the ratios of the side lengths of a right triangle can be expressed in terms of the trigonometric functions
evaluated at either of the acute angles of the triangle. Let θ be one of the acute angles. Let A be the length of the adjacent
leg, O be the length of the opposite leg, and H be the length of the hypotenuse. By inscribing the triangle into a circle of
radius H, as shown in Figure 1.33, we see that A, H, and O satisfy the following relationships with θ:

sinθ = O cscθ = H
H O
cosθ = A secθ = H
H A
tanθ = O cot θ = A
A O

Figure 1.33 By inscribing a right triangle in a circle, we can

express the ratios of the side lengths in terms of the
trigonometric functions evaluated at θ.

Example 1.24

Constructing a Wooden Ramp

A wooden ramp is to be built with one end on the ground and the other end at the top of a short staircase. If the
top of the staircase is 4 ft from the ground and the angle between the ground and the ramp is to be 10°, how
68 Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs

long does the ramp need to be?

Solution
Let x denote the length of the ramp. In the following image, we see that x needs to satisfy the equation
sin(10°) = 4/x. Solving this equation for x, we see that x = 4/sin(10°) ≈ 23.035 ft.

1.19 A house painter wants to lean a 20 -ft ladder against a house. If the angle between the base of the ladder
and the ground is to be 60°, how far from the house should she place the base of the ladder?

Trigonometric Identities
A trigonometric identity is an equation involving trigonometric functions that is true for all angles θ for which the
functions are defined. We can use the identities to help us solve or simplify equations. The main trigonometric identities are
listed next.

Rule: Trigonometric Identities

Reciprocal identities

tanθ = sinθ cot θ = cosθ

cosθ sinθ
cscθ = 1 secθ = 1
sinθ cosθ
Pythagorean identities
sin 2 θ + cos 2 θ = 1 1 + tan 2 θ = sec 2 θ 1 + cot 2 θ = csc 2 θ
Addition and subtraction formulas
sin⎛⎝α ± β⎞⎠ = sinαcos β ± cosαsin β
cos(α ± β) = cosαcos β ∓ sinαsin β

Double-angle formulas
sin(2θ) = 2sinθ cosθ
cos(2θ) = 2cos 2 θ − 1 = 1 − 2sin 2 θ = cos 2 θ − sin 2 θ

Example 1.25

Solving Trigonometric Equations

For each of the following equations, use a trigonometric identity to find all solutions.
a. 1 + cos(2θ) = cosθ
b. sin(2θ) = tanθ

This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col11964/1.12

Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs 69

Solution
a. Using the double-angle formula for cos(2θ), we see that θ is a solution of

1 + cos(2θ) = cosθ

if and only if
1 + 2cos 2 θ − 1 = cosθ,

which is true if and only if

2cos 2 θ − cosθ = 0.

To solve this equation, it is important to note that we need to factor the left-hand side and not divide both
sides of the equation by cosθ. The problem with dividing by cosθ is that it is possible that cosθ is
zero. In fact, if we did divide both sides of the equation by cosθ, we would miss some of the solutions
of the original equation. Factoring the left-hand side of the equation, we see that θ is a solution of this
equation if and only if
cosθ(2cosθ − 1) = 0.

Since cosθ = 0 when

θ = π , π ± π, π ± 2π,…,
2 2 2

and cosθ = 1/2 when

θ = π , π ± 2π,… or θ = − π , − π ± 2π,…,
3 3 3 3

we conclude that the set of solutions to this equation is

θ = π + nπ, θ = π + 2nπ, and θ = − π + 2nπ, n = 0, ± 1, ± 2,….
2 3 3
b. Using the double-angle formula for sin(2θ) and the reciprocal identity for tan(θ), the equation can be
written as

2sinθ cosθ = sinθ .

cosθ

To solve this equation, we multiply both sides by cosθ to eliminate the denominator, and say that if θ
satisfies this equation, then θ satisfies the equation

2sinθcos 2 θ − sinθ = 0.

However, we need to be a little careful here. Even if θ satisfies this new equation, it may not satisfy the
original equation because, to satisfy the original equation, we would need to be able to divide both sides
of the equation by cosθ. However, if cosθ = 0, we cannot divide both sides of the equation by cosθ.
Therefore, it is possible that we may arrive at extraneous solutions. So, at the end, it is important to check
for extraneous solutions. Returning to the equation, it is important that we factor sinθ out of both terms
on the left-hand side instead of dividing both sides of the equation by sinθ. Factoring the left-hand side
of the equation, we can rewrite this equation as
sinθ(2cos 2 θ − 1) = 0.
70 Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs

Therefore, the solutions are given by the angles θ such that sinθ = 0 or cos 2 θ = 1/2. The solutions
of the first equation are θ = 0, ± π, ± 2π,…. The solutions of the second equation are
θ = π/4, (π/4) ± (π/2), (π/4) ± π,…. After checking for extraneous solutions, the set of solutions to the
equation is
θ = nπ and θ = π + nπ , n = 0, ± 1, ± 2,….
4 2

1.20 Find all solutions to the equation cos(2θ) = sinθ.

Example 1.26

Proving a Trigonometric Identity

Prove the trigonometric identity 1 + tan 2 θ = sec 2 θ.

Solution
We start with the identity
sin 2 θ + cos 2 θ = 1.

Dividing both sides of this equation by cos 2 θ, we obtain

sin 2 θ + 1 = 1 .
cos 2 θ cos 2 θ
Since sinθ/cosθ = tanθ and 1/cosθ = secθ, we conclude that

tan 2 θ + 1 = sec 2 θ.

1.21 Prove the trigonometric identity 1 + cot 2 θ = csc 2 θ.

Graphs and Periods of the Trigonometric Functions

We have seen that as we travel around the unit circle, the values of the trigonometric functions repeat. We can see this
pattern in the graphs of the functions. Let P = (x, y) be a point on the unit circle and let θ be the corresponding angle
. Since the angle θ and θ + 2π correspond to the same point P, the values of the trigonometric functions at θ and
at θ + 2π are the same. Consequently, the trigonometric functions are periodic functions. The period of a function f is
defined to be the smallest positive value p such that f (x + p) = f (x) for all values x in the domain of f . The sine,
cosine, secant, and cosecant functions have a period of 2π. Since the tangent and cotangent functions repeat on an interval
of length π, their period is π (Figure 1.34).

This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col11964/1.12

Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs 71

Figure 1.34 The six trigonometric functions are periodic.

Just as with algebraic functions, we can apply transformations to trigonometric functions. In particular, consider the
following function:
f (x) = Asin⎛⎝B(x − α)⎞⎠ + C. (1.10)

In Figure 1.35, the constant α causes a horizontal or phase shift. The factor B changes the period. This transformed
sine function will have a period 2π/|B|. The factor A results in a vertical stretch by a factor of | A|. We say | A| is the
“amplitude of f . ” The constant C causes a vertical shift.

Figure 1.35 A graph of a general sine function.

Notice in Figure 1.34 that the graph of y = cos x is the graph of y = sin x shifted to the left π/2 units. Therefore, we
72 Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs

can write cos x = sin(x + π/2). Similarly, we can view the graph of y = sin x as the graph of y = cos x shifted right π/2
units, and state that sin x = cos(x − π/2).

A shifted sine curve arises naturally when graphing the number of hours of daylight in a given location as a function of
the day of the year. For example, suppose a city reports that June 21 is the longest day of the year with 15.7 hours and
December 21 is the shortest day of the year with 8.3 hours. It can be shown that the function
⎛ ⎞
h(t) = 3.7sin⎝ 2π (t − 80.5)⎠ + 12
365
is a model for the number of hours of daylight h as a function of day of the year t (Figure 1.36).

Figure 1.36 The hours of daylight as a function of day of the year can be modeled
by a shifted sine curve.

Example 1.27

Sketching the Graph of a Transformed Sine Curve

⎛ ⎛ ⎞⎞
Sketch a graph of f (x) = 3sin⎝2⎝x − π ⎠⎠ + 1.
4

Solution
This graph is a phase shift of y = sin(x) to the right by π/4 units, followed by a horizontal compression by a
factor of 2, a vertical stretch by a factor of 3, and then a vertical shift by 1 unit. The period of f is π.

This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col11964/1.12

Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs 73

1.22 Describe the relationship between the graph of f (x) = 3sin(4x) − 5 and the graph of y = sin(x).
74 Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs

1.3 EXERCISES
For the following exercises, convert each angle in degrees
to radians. Write the answer as a multiple of π.

113. 240°

114. 15°

115. −60°

116. −225° 129. a = 4, c = 7

117. 330° 130. a = 21, c = 29

For the following exercises, convert each angle in radians 131. a = 85.3, b = 125.5
to degrees.
132. b = 40, c = 41
118. π rad
2
133. a = 84, b = 13
119. 7π rad
6 134. b = 28, c = 35

120. 11π rad For the following exercises, P is a point on the unit circle.
2
a. Find the (exact) missing coordinate value of each point
and b. find the values of the six trigonometric functions for
121. −3π rad
the angle θ with a terminal side that passes through point
5π rad P. Rationalize denominators.
122.
12
⎛ ⎞
135. P⎝ 7 , y⎠, y > 0
Evaluate the following functional values. 25

⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
123. cos⎝4π ⎠ 136. P⎝−15 , y⎠, y < 0
3 17

⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
124. tan⎝19π ⎠ 137. P⎝x, 7 ⎠, x < 0
4 3

⎛
125. sin⎝− 3π ⎠
⎞ ⎛ ⎞
4 138. P⎝x, − 15 ⎠, x > 0
4

⎛ ⎞
126. sec⎝π ⎠ For the following exercises, simplify each expression by
6 writing it in terms of sines and cosines, then simplify. The
final answer does not have to be in terms of sine and cosine
⎛ ⎞
127. sin⎝ π ⎠ only.
12

⎛ ⎞ 139. tan 2 x + sin x csc x

128. cos⎝5π ⎠
12
140. sec x sin x cot x
For the following exercises, consider triangle ABC, a right
triangle with a right angle at C. a. Find the missing side of 141. tan 2 x
the triangle. b. Find the six trigonometric function values sec 2 x
for the angle at A. Where necessary, round to one decimal
place. 142. sec x − cos x

143. (1 + tanθ) 2 − 2tanθ

This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col11964/1.12

Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs 75

144. sin x(csc x − sin x) 163.

145. cost + sint

sint 1 + cost

146. 1 + tan 2 α
1 + cot 2 α

For the following exercises, verify that each equation is an

identity.

147. tanθ cot θ = sinθ

cscθ

148. sec 2 θ = secθ cscθ

tanθ

sint cost
149. csct + sect = 1 164.

150. sin x + cos x − 1 = 0

cos x + 1 sin x

151. cot γ + tanγ = secγ cscγ

152. sin 2 β + tan 2 β + cos 2 β = sec 2 β

153. 1 + 1 = 2sec 2 α
1 − sinα 1 + sinα

154. tanθ − cot θ = sec 2 θ − csc 2 θ

sinθ cosθ

For the following exercises, solve the trigonometric

equations on the interval 0 ≤ θ < 2π.
165.
155. 2sinθ − 1 = 0

156. 1 + cosθ = 1
2

157. 2tan 2 θ = 2

158. 4sin 2 θ − 2 = 0

159. 3cot θ + 1 = 0

160. 3secθ − 2 3 = 0

161. 2cosθ sinθ = sinθ

162. csc 2 θ + 2cscθ + 1 = 0

For the following exercises, each graph is of the form

y = Asin Bx or y = Acos Bx, where B > 0. Write the
equation of the graph.
76 Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs

166. 175. [T] As a point P moves around a circle, the measure

of the angle changes. The measure of how fast the angle
is changing is called angular speed, ω, and is given by
ω = θ/t, where θ is in radians and t is time. Find the
angular speed for the given data. Round to the nearest
thousandth. a. θ = 7π rad, t = 10 sec b.
4
θ = 3π rad, t = 8 sec c. θ = 2π rad, t = 1 min d.
5 9
θ = 23.76rad,t = 14 min

176. [T] A total of 250,000 m2 of land is needed to build a

nuclear power plant. Suppose it is decided that the area on
which the power plant is to be built should be circular.
a. Find the radius of the circular land area.
b. If the land area is to form a 45° sector of a circle
instead of a whole circle, find the length of the
For the following exercises, find a. the amplitude, b. the
curved side.
period, and c. the phase shift with direction for each
function. 177. [T] The area of an isosceles triangle with equal sides
⎛ ⎞ of length x is 1 x 2 sinθ, where θ is the angle formed by
167. y = sin⎝x − π ⎠ 2
4
the two sides. Find the area of an isosceles triangle with
168. y = 3cos(2x + 3) equal sides of length 8 in. and angle θ = 5π/12 rad.

178. [T] A particle travels in a circular path at a constant

⎛ ⎞
169. y = −1 sin⎝1 x⎠ angular speed ω. The angular speed is modeled by the
2 4
function ω = 9|cos(πt − π/12)|. Determine the angular
⎛ ⎞
170. y = 2cos⎝x − π ⎠ speed at t = 9 sec.
3
179. [T] An alternating current for outlets in a home has
171. y = −3sin(πx + 2) voltage given by the function V(t) = 150cos368t, where
V is the voltage in volts at time t in seconds.
⎛ ⎞
172. y = 4cos⎝2x − π ⎠ a. Find the period of the function and interpret its
2
meaning.
b. Determine the number of periods that occur when 1
173. [T] The diameter of a wheel rolling on the ground
sec has passed.
is 40 in. If the wheel rotates through an angle of 120°,
how many inches does it move? Approximate to the nearest 180. [T] The number of hours of daylight in a northeast
whole inch. city is modeled by the function
⎡ ⎤
N(t) = 12 + 3sin⎣ 2π (t − 79)⎦,
174. [T] Find the length of the arc intercepted by central 365
angle θ in a circle of radius r. Round to the nearest where t is the number of days after January 1.
hundredth. a. r = 12.8 cm, θ = 5π rad b. r = 4.378 cm, a. Find the amplitude and period.
6 b. Determine the number of hours of daylight on the
θ = 7π rad c. r = 0.964 cm, θ = 50° d. r = 8.55 cm, longest day of the year.
6 c. Determine the number of hours of daylight on the
θ = 325° shortest day of the year.
d. Determine the number of hours of daylight 90 days
after January 1.
e. Sketch the graph of the function for one period
starting on January 1.

This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col11964/1.12

Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs 77

⎡ ⎤
181. [T] Suppose that T = 50 + 10sin⎣ π (t − 8)⎦ is a
12
mathematical model of the temperature (in degrees
Fahrenheit) at t hours after midnight on a certain day of the
week.
a. Determine the amplitude and period.
b. Find the temperature 7 hours after midnight.
c. At what time does T = 60° ?
d. Sketch the graph of T over 0 ≤ t ≤ 24.

⎛ ⎞
182. [T] The function H(t) = 8sin⎝π t⎠ models the height
6
H (in feet) of the tide t hours after midnight. Assume that
t = 0 is midnight.
a. Find the amplitude and period.
b. Graph the function over one period.
c. What is the height of the tide at 4:30 a.m.?
78 Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs

1.4 | Inverse Functions

Learning Objectives
1.4.1 Determine the conditions for when a function has an inverse.
1.4.2 Use the horizontal line test to recognize when a function is one-to-one.
1.4.3 Find the inverse of a given function.
1.4.4 Draw the graph of an inverse function.
1.4.5 Evaluate inverse trigonometric functions.

An inverse function reverses the operation done by a particular function. In other words, whatever a function does, the
inverse function undoes it. In this section, we define an inverse function formally and state the necessary conditions for an
inverse function to exist. We examine how to find an inverse function and study the relationship between the graph of a
function and the graph of its inverse. Then we apply these ideas to define and discuss properties of the inverse trigonometric
functions.

Existence of an Inverse Function

We begin with an example. Given a function f and an output y = f (x), we are often interested in finding what
value or values x were mapped to y by f . For example, consider the function f (x) = x 3 + 4. Since any output
3
y = x 3 + 4, we can solve this equation for x to find that the input is x = y − 4. This equation defines x as a function
3
of y. Denoting this function as f −1, and writing x = f −1 (y) = y − 4, we see that for any x in the domain of
f , f −1 ⎛⎝ f (x)⎞⎠ = f −1 ⎛⎝x 3 + 4⎞⎠ = x. Thus, this new function, f −1, “undid” what the original function f did. A function
with this property is called the inverse function of the original function.

Definition
Given a function f with domain D and range R, its inverse function (if it exists) is the function f −1 with domain
R and range D such that f −1 (y) = x if f (x) = y. In other words, for a function f and its inverse f −1,

f −1 ⎛⎝ f (x)⎞⎠ = x for all x in D, and f ⎛⎝ f −1 (y)⎞⎠ = y for all y in R. (1.11)

Note that f −1 is read as “f inverse.” Here, the −1 is not used as an exponent and f −1 (x) ≠ 1/ f (x). Figure 1.37 shows
the relationship between the domain and range of f and the domain and range of f −1.

Figure 1.37 Given a function f and its inverse

f −1, f −1 (y) = x if and only if f (x) = y. The range of f
becomes the domain of f −1 and the domain of f becomes the
range of f −1.

Recall that a function has exactly one output for each input. Therefore, to define an inverse function, we need to map each

This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col11964/1.12

Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs 79

input to exactly one output. For example, let’s try to find the inverse function for f (x) = x 2. Solving the equation y = x 2
for x, we arrive at the equation x = ± y. This equation does not describe x as a function of y because there are two
solutions to this equation for every y > 0. The problem with trying to find an inverse function for f (x) = x 2 is that two
inputs are sent to the same output for each output y > 0. The function f (x) = x 3 + 4 discussed earlier did not have this
problem. For that function, each input was sent to a different output. A function that sends each input to a different output
is called a one-to-one function.

Definition
We say a f is a one-to-one function if f (x 1) ≠ f (x 2) when x 1 ≠ x 2.

One way to determine whether a function is one-to-one is by looking at its graph. If a function is one-to-one, then no two
inputs can be sent to the same output. Therefore, if we draw a horizontal line anywhere in the xy -plane, according to the
horizontal line test, it cannot intersect the graph more than once. We note that the horizontal line test is different from
the vertical line test. The vertical line test determines whether a graph is the graph of a function. The horizontal line test
determines whether a function is one-to-one (Figure 1.38).

Rule: Horizontal Line Test

A function f is one-to-one if and only if every horizontal line intersects the graph of f no more than once.

Figure 1.38 (a) The function f (x) = x 2 is not one-to-one

because it fails the horizontal line test. (b) The function
f (x) = x 3 is one-to-one because it passes the horizontal line
test.

Example 1.28

Determining Whether a Function Is One-to-One

For each of the following functions, use the horizontal line test to determine whether it is one-to-one.
80 Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs

a.

b.

Solution
a. Since the horizontal line y = n for any integer n ≥ 0 intersects the graph more than once, this function
is not one-to-one.

This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col11964/1.12

Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs 81

b. Since every horizontal line intersects the graph once (at most), this function is one-to-one.

1.23 Is the function f graphed in the following image one-to-one?

82 Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs

Finding a Function’s Inverse

We can now consider one-to-one functions and show how to find their inverses. Recall that a function maps elements in
the domain of f to elements in the range of f . The inverse function maps each element from the range of f back to its
corresponding element from the domain of f . Therefore, to find the inverse function of a one-to-one function f , given
any y in the range of f , we need to determine which x in the domain of f satisfies f (x) = y. Since f is one-to-one,
there is exactly one such value x. We can find that value x by solving the equation f (x) = y for x. Doing so, we are
able to write x as a function of y where the domain of this function is the range of f and the range of this new function
is the domain of f . Consequently, this function is the inverse of f , and we write x = f −1(y). Since we typically use the
variable x to denote the independent variable and y to denote the dependent variable, we often interchange the roles of x
and y, and write y = f −1(x). Representing the inverse function in this way is also helpful later when we graph a function
f and its inverse f −1 on the same axes.

Problem-Solving Strategy: Finding an Inverse Function

1. Solve the equation y = f (x) for x.

2. Interchange the variables x and y and write y = f −1(x).

Example 1.29

Finding an Inverse Function

Find the inverse for the function f (x) = 3x − 4. State the domain and range of the inverse function. Verify that
f −1( f (x)) = x.

Solution
Follow the steps outlined in the strategy.

Step 1. If y = 3x − 4, then 3x = y + 4 and x = 1 y + 4 .

3 3

Step 2. Rewrite as y = 1 x + 4 and let y = f −1 (x).

3 3

Therefore, f −1 (x) = 1 x + 4 .
3 3

Since the domain of f is (−∞, ∞), the range of f −1 is (−∞, ∞). Since the range of f is (−∞, ∞), the
domain of f −1 is (−∞, ∞).

You can verify that f −1( f (x)) = x by writing

f −1( f (x)) = f −1(3x − 4) = 1 (3x − 4) + 4 = x − 4 + 4 = x.

3 3 3 3

Note that for f −1(x) to be the inverse of f (x), both f −1( f (x)) = x and f ( f −1(x)) = x for all x in the domain
of the inside function.

This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col11964/1.12

Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs 83

1.24 Find the inverse of the function f (x) = 3x/(x − 2). State the domain and range of the inverse function.

Graphing Inverse Functions

Let’s consider the relationship between the graph of a function f and the graph of its inverse. Consider the graph of f
shown in Figure 1.39 and a point (a, b) on the graph. Since b = f (a), then f −1 (b) = a. Therefore, when we graph
f −1, the point (b, a) is on the graph. As a result, the graph of f −1 is a reflection of the graph of f about the line
y = x.

Figure 1.39 (a) The graph of this function f shows point (a, b) on the graph of f . (b)
Since (a, b) is on the graph of f , the point (b, a) is on the graph of f −1. The graph of
f −1 is a reflection of the graph of f about the line y = x.

Example 1.30

Sketching Graphs of Inverse Functions

For the graph of f in the following image, sketch a graph of f −1 by sketching the line y = x and using
symmetry. Identify the domain and range of f −1.
84 Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs

Solution
Reflect the graph about the line y = x. The domain of f −1 is [0, ∞). The range of f −1 is [−2, ∞). By using
the preceding strategy for finding inverse functions, we can verify that the inverse function is f −1 (x) = x 2 − 2,
as shown in the graph.

1.25 Sketch the graph of f (x) = 2x + 3 and the graph of its inverse using the symmetry property of inverse
functions.

Restricting Domains
As we have seen, f (x) = x 2 does not have an inverse function because it is not one-to-one. However, we can choose a
subset of the domain of f such that the function is one-to-one. This subset is called a restricted domain. By restricting the
domain of f , we can define a new function g such that the domain of g is the restricted domain of f and g(x) = f (x)
for all x in the domain of g. Then we can define an inverse function for g on that domain. For example, since f (x) = x 2
is one-to-one on the interval [0, ∞), we can define a new function g such that the domain of g is [0, ∞) and g(x) = x 2
for all x in its domain. Since g is a one-to-one function, it has an inverse function, given by the formula g −1(x) = x. On
the other hand, the function f (x) = x 2 is also one-to-one on the domain (−∞, 0]. Therefore, we could also define a new
function h such that the domain of h is (−∞, 0] and h(x) = x 2 for all x in the domain of h. Then h is a one-to-one
function and must also have an inverse. Its inverse is given by the formula h −1(x) = − x (Figure 1.40).

This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col11964/1.12

Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs 85

Figure 1.40 (a) For g(x) = x 2 restricted to [0, ∞), g −1 (x) = x. (b) For
h(x) = x 2 restricted to (−∞, 0], h −1 (x) = − x.

Example 1.31

Restricting the Domain

Consider the function f (x) = (x + 1) 2.

a. Sketch the graph of f and use the horizontal line test to show that f is not one-to-one.

b. Show that f is one-to-one on the restricted domain [−1, ∞). Determine the domain and range for the
inverse of f on this restricted domain and find a formula for f −1.

Solution
a. The graph of f is the graph of y = x 2 shifted left 1 unit. Since there exists a horizontal line intersecting
the graph more than once, f is not one-to-one.

b. On the interval [−1, ∞), f is one-to-one.

86 Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs

The domain and range of f −1 are given by the range and domain of f , respectively. Therefore, the
domain of f −1 is [0, ∞) and the range of f −1 is [−1, ∞). To find a formula for f −1, solve the
equation y = (x + 1) 2 for x. If y = (x + 1) 2, then x = −1 ± y. Since we are restricting the domain
to the interval where x ≥ −1, we need ± y ≥ 0. Therefore, x = −1 + y. Interchanging x and y,
we write y = −1 + x and conclude that f −1 (x) = −1 + x.

1.26 Consider f (x) = 1/x 2 restricted to the domain (−∞, 0). Verify that f is one-to-one on this domain.
Determine the domain and range of the inverse of f and find a formula for f −1.

Inverse Trigonometric Functions

The six basic trigonometric functions are periodic, and therefore they are not one-to-one. However, if we restrict the domain
of a trigonometric function to an interval where it is one-to-one, we can define its inverse. Consider the sine function
(Figure 1.34). The sine function is one-to-one on an infinite number of intervals, but the standard convention is to restrict
⎡ ⎤
the domain to the interval ⎣− π , π ⎦. By doing so, we define the inverse sine function on the domain [−1, 1] such that
2 2
⎡ ⎤
for any x in the interval [−1, 1], the inverse sine function tells us which angle θ in the interval ⎣− π , π ⎦ satisfies
2 2
sinθ = x. Similarly, we can restrict the domains of the other trigonometric functions to define inverse trigonometric
functions, which are functions that tell us which angle in a certain interval has a specified trigonometric value.

Definition
The inverse sine function, denoted sin −1 or arcsin, and the inverse cosine function, denoted cos −1 or arccos, are
defined on the domain D = {x| − 1 ≤ x ≤ 1} as follows:

This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col11964/1.12

Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs 87

sin −1 (x) = y if and only if sin(y) = x and − π ≤ y ≤ π ; (1.12)

2 2
cos −1 (x) = y if and only if cos(y) = x and 0 ≤ y ≤ π.

The inverse tangent function, denoted tan −1 or arctan, and inverse cotangent function, denoted cot −1 or arccot, are
defined on the domain D = {x| − ∞ < x < ∞} as follows:

tan −1 (x) = y if and only if tan(y) = x and − π < y < π ; (1.13)

2 2
−1
cot (x) = y if and only if cot(y) = x and 0 < y < π.

The inverse cosecant function, denoted csc −1 or arccsc, and inverse secant function, denoted sec −1 or arcsec, are
defined on the domain D = {x||x| ≥ 1} as follows:

csc −1 (x) = y if and only if csc(y) = x and − π ≤ y ≤ π , y ≠ 0; (1.14)

2 2
−1
sec (x) = y if and only if sec(y) = x and 0 ≤ y ≤ π, y ≠ π/2.

To graph the inverse trigonometric functions, we use the graphs of the trigonometric functions restricted to the domains
defined earlier and reflect the graphs about the line y = x (Figure 1.41).

Figure 1.41 The graph of each of the inverse trigonometric functions is a reflection about the line y = x of
the corresponding restricted trigonometric function.

Go to the following site (http://www.openstax.org/l/20_inversefun) for more comparisons of functions

and their inverses.
88 Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs

⎛ ⎞
When evaluating an inverse trigonometric function, the output is an angle. For example, to evaluate cos −1 ⎝1 ⎠, we need to
2
1
find an angle θ such that cosθ = . Clearly, many angles have this property. However, given the definition of cos −1, we
2
⎛ ⎞ π.
need the angle θ that not only solves this equation, but also lies in the interval [0, π]. We conclude that cos −1 ⎝1 ⎠ =
2 3
We now consider a composition of a trigonometric function and its inverse. For example, consider the two expressions
⎛ ⎛ ⎞⎞
sin⎝sin −1 ⎝ 2 ⎠⎠ and sin −1(sin(π)). For the first one, we simplify as follows:
2
⎛ ⎛ ⎞⎞ ⎛ ⎞
sin⎝sin −1 ⎝ 2 ⎠⎠ = sin⎝π ⎠ = 2 .
2 4 2
For the second one, we have
sin −1 ⎛⎝sin(π)⎞⎠ = sin −1 (0) = 0.

The inverse function is supposed to “undo” the original function, so why isn’t sin −1 ⎛⎝sin(π)⎞⎠ = π ? Recalling our definition
of inverse functions, a function f and its inverse f −1 satisfy the conditions f ⎛⎝ f −1 (y)⎞⎠ = y for all y in the domain of

f −1 and f −1 ⎛⎝ f (x)⎞⎠ = x for all x in the domain of f , so what happened here? The issue is that the inverse sine function,
⎡ ⎤
sin −1, is the inverse of the restricted sine function defined on the domain ⎣− π , π ⎦. Therefore, for x in the interval
2 2
⎡ π π⎤ −1
⎣− 2 , 2 ⎦, it is true that sin (sin x) = x. However, for values of x outside this interval, the equation does not hold, even

though sin −1(sin x) is defined for all real numbers x.

What about sin(sin −1 y) ? Does that have a similar issue? The answer is no. Since the domain of sin −1 is the interval
[−1, 1], we conclude that sin(sin −1 y) = y if −1 ≤ y ≤ 1 and the expression is not defined for other values of y. To
summarize,
sin(sin −1 y) = y if −1 ≤ y ≤ 1

and
sin −1 (sin x) = x if − π ≤ x ≤ π .
2 2
Similarly, for the cosine function,
cos(cos −1 y) = y if −1 ≤ y ≤ 1

and
cos −1 (cos x) = x if 0 ≤ x ≤ π.
Similar properties hold for the other trigonometric functions and their inverses.

Example 1.32

Evaluating Expressions Involving Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Evaluate each of the following expressions.

⎛ ⎞
a. sin −1 ⎝− 3 ⎠
2
⎛ ⎛ ⎞⎞
b. tan⎝tan −1 ⎝− 1 ⎠⎠
3

This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col11964/1.12

Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs 89

⎛ ⎛ ⎞⎞
c. cos −1 ⎝cos⎝5π ⎠⎠
4
⎛ ⎛ ⎞⎞
d. sin −1 ⎝cos⎝2π ⎠⎠
3

Solution
a. Evaluating sin −1 ⎛⎝− 3/2⎞⎠ is equivalent to finding the angle θ such that sinθ = − 3/2 and
−π/2 ≤ θ ≤ π/2. The angle θ = −π/3 satisfies these two conditions. Therefore,
sin −1 ⎛⎝− 3/2⎞⎠ = −π/3.

b. First we use the fact that tan −1 ⎛⎝−1/ 3⎞⎠ = −π/6. Then tan(π/6) = −1/ 3. Therefore,

tan⎛⎝tan −1 ⎛⎝−1/ ⎞⎞
3 = −1/ 3.
⎠⎠

c. To evaluate cos −1 ⎛⎝cos(5π/4)⎞⎠, first use the fact that cos(5π/4) = − 2/2. Then we need to find the
angle θ such that cos(θ) = − 2/2 and 0 ≤ θ ≤ π. Since 3π/4 satisfies both these conditions, we have
cos⎛⎝cos −1 (5π/4)⎞⎠ = cos⎛⎝cos −1 ⎛⎝− 2/2⎞⎠⎞⎠ = 3π/4.

d. Since cos(2π/3) = −1/2, we need to evaluate sin −1 (−1/2). That is, we need to find the angle θ such
that sin(θ) = −1/2 and −π/2 ≤ θ ≤ π/2. Since −π/6 satisfies both these conditions, we can conclude
that sin −1 (cos(2π/3)) = sin −1 (−1/2) = −π/6.
90 Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs

The Maximum Value of a Function

In many areas of science, engineering, and mathematics, it is useful to know the maximum value a function can obtain,
even if we don’t know its exact value at a given instant. For instance, if we have a function describing the strength
of a roof beam, we would want to know the maximum weight the beam can support without breaking. If we have a
function that describes the speed of a train, we would want to know its maximum speed before it jumps off the rails.
Safe design often depends on knowing maximum values.
This project describes a simple example of a function with a maximum value that depends on two equation coefficients.
We will see that maximum values can depend on several factors other than the independent variable x.
1. Consider the graph in Figure 1.42 of the function y = sin x + cos x. Describe its overall shape. Is it periodic?
How do you know?

Figure 1.42 The graph of y = sin x + cos x.

Using a graphing calculator or other graphing device, estimate the x - and y -values of the maximum point for
the graph (the first such point where x > 0). It may be helpful to express the x -value as a multiple of π.
2. Now consider other graphs of the form y = Asin x + Bcos x for various values of A and B. Sketch the graph
when A = 2 and B = 1, and find the x - and y-values for the maximum point. (Remember to express the x-value
as a multiple of π, if possible.) Has it moved?
3. Repeat for A = 1, B = 2. Is there any relationship to what you found in part (2)?
4. Complete the following table, adding a few choices of your own for A and B:

This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col11964/1.12

Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs 91

A B x y A B x y

0 1 3 1

1 0 1 3

1 1 12 5

1 2 5 12

2 1

2 2

3 4

4 3

5. Try to figure out the formula for the y-values.

6. The formula for the x -values is a little harder. The most helpful points from the table are
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
(1, 1), 1, 3 ,
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ 3, 1 . (Hint: Consider inverse trigonometric functions.)
⎠

7. If you found formulas for parts (5) and (6), show that they work together. That is, substitute the x -value
formula you found into y = Asin x + Bcos x and simplify it to arrive at the y -value formula you found.
92 Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs

1.4 EXERCISES
For the following exercises, use the horizontal line test to 186.
determine whether each of the given graphs is one-to-one.

183.

187.

184.

188.

185.

For the following exercises, a. find the inverse function,

and b. find the domain and range of the inverse function.

189. f (x) = x 2 − 4, x ≥ 0

3
190. f (x) = x − 4

191. f (x) = x 3 + 1

192. f (x) = (x − 1) 2, x ≤ 1

This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col11964/1.12

Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs 93

193. f (x) = x − 1 198.

194. f (x) = 1
x+2

For the following exercises, use the graph of f to sketch

the graph of its inverse function.

195.

For the following exercises, use composition to determine

which pairs of functions are inverses.

199. f (x) = 8x, g(x) = x

8

200. f (x) = 8x + 3, g(x) = x − 3

8

196. 201. f (x) = 5x − 7, g(x) = x + 5

7

202. f (x) = 2 x + 2, g(x) = 3 x + 3

3 2

203. f (x) = 1 , x ≠ 1, g(x) = 1 + 1, x ≠ 0

x−1 x

204. f (x) = x 3 + 1, g(x) = (x − 1) 1/3

205.
f (x) = x 2 + 2x + 1, x ≥ −1, g(x) = −1 + x, x ≥ 0

206.
197.
f (x) = 4 − x 2, 0 ≤ x ≤ 2, g(x) = 4 − x 2, 0 ≤ x ≤ 2

For the following exercises, evaluate the functions. Give

the exact value.

⎛ ⎞
207. tan −1 ⎝ 3 ⎠
3

⎛ ⎞
208. cos −1 ⎝− 2 ⎠
2

209. cot −1 (1)

210. sin −1 (−1)

⎛ ⎞
211. cos −1 ⎝ 3 ⎠
2
94 Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs

212. cos⎛⎝tan −1 ⎛⎝ 3⎞⎠⎞⎠ 221. [T] An airplane’s Mach number M is the ratio of
its speed to the speed of sound. When a plane is flying
⎛ ⎛ ⎞⎞
at a constant altitude, then its Mach angle is given by
213. sin⎝cos −1 ⎝ 2 ⎠⎠ ⎛ ⎞
2 μ = 2sin −1 ⎝ 1 ⎠. Find the Mach angle (to the nearest
M
degree) for the following Mach numbers.
⎛ ⎛ ⎞⎞
214. sin −1 ⎝sin⎝π ⎠⎠
3

⎛ ⎛ ⎞⎞
215. tan −1 ⎝tan⎝− π ⎠⎠
6

216. The function C = T(F) = (5/9)(F − 32) converts

degrees Fahrenheit to degrees Celsius.
a. Find the inverse function F = T −1(C)
b. What is the inverse function used for?

217. [T] The velocity V (in centimeters per second) of

blood in an artery at a distance x cm from the center of
the artery can be modeled by the function a. M = 1.4
V = f (x) = 500(0.04 − x 2) for 0 ≤ x ≤ 0.2. b. M = 2.8
c. M = 4.3
a. Find x = f −1(V).
⎛ ⎞
b. Interpret what the inverse function is used for. 222. [T] Using μ = 2sin −1 ⎝ 1 ⎠, find the Mach number
c. Find the distance from the center of an artery with M
a velocity of 15 cm/sec, 10 cm/sec, and 5 cm/sec. M for the following angles.
a. μ = π
218. A function that converts dress sizes in the United 6
States to those in Europe is given by D(x) = 2x + 24. b. μ= 2π
7
a. Find the European dress sizes that correspond to
sizes 6, 8, 10, and 12 in the United States. c. μ = 3π
8
b. Find the function that converts European dress
sizes to U.S. dress sizes. 223. [T] The average temperature (in degrees Celsius)
c. Use part b. to find the dress sizes in the United of a city in the northern United States can be modeled
States that correspond to 46, 52, 62, and 70. ⎡ ⎤
by the function T(x) = 5 + 18sin⎣ π (x − 4.6)⎦, where x
6
219. [T] The cost to remove a toxin from a lake is
modeled by the function C(p) = 75p/(85 − p), where is time in months and x = 1.00 corresponds to January
1. Determine the month and day when the average
C is the cost (in thousands of dollars) and p is the amount temperature is 21°C.
of toxin in a small lake (measured in parts per billion
[ppb]). This model is valid only when the amount of toxin 224. [T] The depth (in feet) of water at a dock changes
is less than 85 ppb. with the rise and fall of tides. It is modeled by the function
⎛ ⎞
D(t) = 5sin⎝π t − 7π ⎠ + 8, where t is the number of
a. Find the cost to remove 25 ppb, 40 ppb, and 50 ppb
of the toxin from the lake. 6 6
b. Find the inverse function. c. Use part b. to hours after midnight. Determine the first time after
determine how much of the toxin is removed for midnight when the depth is 11.75 ft.
$50,000.
225. [T] An object moving in simple harmonic motion
220. [T] A race car is accelerating at a velocity given ⎛ ⎞
is modeled by the function s(t) = −6cos⎝πt ⎠, where s
by v(t) = 25 t + 54, where v is the velocity (in feet per 2
4 is measured in inches and t is measured in seconds.
second) at time t. Determine the first time when the distance moved is 4.5 in.
a. Find the velocity of the car at 10 sec.
b. Find the inverse function.
c. Use part b. to determine how long it takes for the
car to reach a speed of 150 ft/sec.

This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col11964/1.12

Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs 95

226. [T] A local art gallery has a portrait 3 ft in height

that is hung 2.5 ft above the eye level of an average person.
The viewing angle θ can be modeled by the function
θ = tan −1 5.5
x − tan
−1 2.5
x , where x is the distance (in
feet) from the portrait. Find the viewing angle when a
person is 4 ft from the portrait.

227. [T] Use a calculator to evaluate tan −1 (tan(2.1)) and

cos −1 (cos(2.1)). Explain the results of each.

228. [T] Use a calculator to evaluate sin(sin −1(−2)) and

tan(tan −1(−2)). Explain the results of each.
96 Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs

1.5 | Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

Learning Objectives
1.5.1 Identify the form of an exponential function.
1.5.2 Explain the difference between the graphs of x b and b x.
1.5.3 Recognize the significance of the number e.
1.5.4 Identify the form of a logarithmic function.
1.5.5 Explain the relationship between exponential and logarithmic functions.
1.5.6 Describe how to calculate a logarithm to a different base.
1.5.7 Identify the hyperbolic functions, their graphs, and basic identities.

In this section we examine exponential and logarithmic functions. We use the properties of these functions to solve
equations involving exponential or logarithmic terms, and we study the meaning and importance of the number e. We also
define hyperbolic and inverse hyperbolic functions, which involve combinations of exponential and logarithmic functions.
(Note that we present alternative definitions of exponential and logarithmic functions in the chapter Applications of
Integrations, and prove that the functions have the same properties with either definition.)

Exponential Functions
Exponential functions arise in many applications. One common example is population growth.
For example, if a population starts with P 0 individuals and then grows at an annual rate of 2%, its population after 1 year
is
P(1) = P 0 + 0.02P 0 = P 0(1 + 0.02) = P 0(1.02).

Its population after 2 years is

P(2) = P(1) + 0.02P(1) = P(1)(1.02) = P 0 (1.02) 2.

In general, its population after t years is

P(t) = P 0 (1.02) t,

which is an exponential function. More generally, any function of the form f (x) = b x, where b > 0, b ≠ 1, is an
exponential function with base b and exponent x. Exponential functions have constant bases and variable exponents. Note
that a function of the form f (x) = x b for some constant b is not an exponential function but a power function.

To see the difference between an exponential function and a power function, we compare the functions y = x 2 and y = 2 x.
In Table 1.10, we see that both 2 x and x 2 approach infinity as x → ∞. Eventually, however, 2 x becomes larger than
x 2 and grows more rapidly as x → ∞. In the opposite direction, as x → −∞, x 2 → ∞, whereas 2 x → 0. The line
y = 0 is a horizontal asymptote for y = 2 x.

x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

x2 9 4 1 0 1 4 9 16 25 36

2x 1/8 1/4 1/2 1 2 4 8 16 32 64

Table 1.10 Values of x 2 and 2 x

This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col11964/1.12

Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs 97

In Figure 1.43, we graph both y = x 2 and y = 2 x to show how the graphs differ.

Figure 1.43 Both 2 x and x 2 approach infinity as x → ∞,

but 2 x grows more rapidly than x 2. As
x → −∞, x 2 → ∞, whereas 2 x → 0.

Evaluating Exponential Functions

Recall the properties of exponents: If x is a positive integer, then we define b x = b · b ⋯ b (with x factors of b). If x
−y
is a negative integer, then x = −y for some positive integer y, and we define b x = b = 1/b y. Also, b 0 is defined
p/q q
to be 1. If x is a rational number, then x = p/q, where p and q are integers and b x = b = b p. For example,
9 3/2 = 9 3 = 27. However, how is b x defined if x is an irrational number? For example, what do we mean by 2 2 ?
This is too complex a question for us to answer fully right now; however, we can make an approximation. In Table 1.11,
we list some rational numbers approaching 2, and the values of 2 x for each rational number x are presented as well.
We claim that if we choose rational numbers x getting closer and closer to 2, the values of 2 x get closer and closer to
some number L. We define that number L to be 2 2.

x 1.4 1.41 1.414 1.4142 1.41421 1.414213

2x 2.639 2.65737 2.66475 2.665119 2.665138 2.665143

Table 1.11 Values of 2 x for a List of Rational Numbers Approximating 2

Example 1.33

Bacterial Growth

Suppose a particular population of bacteria is known to double in size every 4 hours. If a culture starts with
1000 bacteria, the number of bacteria after 4 hours is n(4) = 1000 · 2. The number of bacteria after 8 hours is
n(8) = n(4) · 2 = 1000 · 2 2. In general, the number of bacteria after 4m hours is n(4m) = 1000 · 2 m. Letting
98 Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs

t = 4m, we see that the number of bacteria after t hours is n(t) = 1000 · 2 t/4. Find the number of bacteria
after 6 hours, 10 hours, and 24 hours.

Solution
The number of bacteria after 6 hours is given by n(6) = 1000 · 2 6/4 ≈ 2828 bacteria. The number of bacteria
after 10 hours is given by n(10) = 1000 · 2 10/4 ≈ 5657 bacteria. The number of bacteria after 24 hours is
given by n(24) = 1000 · 2 6 = 64,000 bacteria.

1.27 Given the exponential function f (x) = 100 · 3 x/2, evaluate f (4) and f (10).

Go to World Population Balance (http://www.openstax.org/l/20_exponengrow) for another example of

exponential population growth.

Graphing Exponential Functions

For any base b > 0, b ≠ 1, the exponential function f (x) = b x is defined for all real numbers x and b x > 0. Therefore,
the domain of f (x) = b x is (−∞, ∞) and the range is (0, ∞). To graph b x, we note that for b > 1, b x is increasing
on (−∞, ∞) and b x → ∞ as x → ∞, whereas b x → 0 as x → −∞. On the other hand, if 0 < b < 1, f (x) = b x is
decreasing on (−∞, ∞) and b x → 0 as x → ∞ whereas b x → ∞ as x → −∞ (Figure 1.44).

Figure 1.44 If b > 1, then b x is increasing on (−∞, ∞).

If 0 < b < 1, then b x is decreasing on (−∞, ∞).

Visit this site (http://www.openstax.org/l/20_inverse) for more exploration of the graphs of exponential
functions.

Note that exponential functions satisfy the general laws of exponents. To remind you of these laws, we state them as rules.

Rule: Laws of Exponents

For any constants a > 0, b > 0, and for all x and y,
x+y
1. bx · by = b

2. bx = bx − y
by

This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col11964/1.12

Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs 99

xy
3. (b x) y = b

4. (ab) x = a x b x

a x = ⎛a ⎞
x

b x ⎝b ⎠
5.

Example 1.34

Using the Laws of Exponents

Use the laws of exponents to simplify each of the following expressions.

3
⎛ 2/3⎞
⎝2x ⎠
a. 2
⎛ −1/3⎞
⎝4x ⎠

⎛ 3 −1⎞
2
⎝x y ⎠
b. −2
⎛ 2⎞
⎝xy ⎠

Solution
a. We can simplify as follows:
3 3
⎛ 2/3⎞
⎝2x ⎠ 2 3 ⎛⎝x 2/3⎞⎠ 8x 2 = x 2 x 2/3 = x 8/3 .
= =
⎛ −1/3 ⎞
2 2
16x −2/3 2 2
⎝4x ⎠ 4 2 ⎛⎝x −1/3⎠ ⎞

b. We can simplify as follows:

⎛ 3 −1⎞
2 2
⎛ 3⎞ ⎛ −1⎞
2
⎝x y ⎠ ⎝x ⎠ ⎝y ⎠ x 6 y −2
−2
= −2
= = x 6 x 2 y −2 y 4 = x 8 y 2.
⎛ 2⎞
x −2 ⎛⎝y 2⎞⎠ x −2 y −4
⎝xy ⎠

1.28 Use the laws of exponents to simplify ⎛⎝6x −3 y 2⎞⎠/⎛⎝12x −4 y 5⎞⎠.

The Number e
A special type of exponential function appears frequently in real-world applications. To describe it, consider the following
example of exponential growth, which arises from compounding interest in a savings account. Suppose a person invests P
dollars in a savings account with an annual interest rate r, compounded annually. The amount of money after 1 year is

A(1) = P + rP = P(1 + r).

The amount of money after 2 years is

A(2) = A(1) + rA(1) = P(1 + r) + rP(1 + r) = P(1 + r) 2.

More generally, the amount after t years is

A(t) = P(1 + r) t.
100 Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs

If the money is compounded 2 times per year, the amount of money after half a year is
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎛ ⎞⎞
A⎝1 ⎠ = P + ⎝ r ⎠P = P⎝1 + ⎝ r ⎠⎠.
2 2 2
The amount of money after 1 year is

⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎛ ⎞⎞ ⎛ ⎞
2
A(1) = A⎝1 ⎠ + ⎝ r ⎠A⎝1 ⎠ = P⎝1 + r ⎠ + r ⎝P⎝1 + r ⎠⎠ = P⎝1 + r ⎠ .
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
After t years, the amount of money in the account is

⎛ ⎞
2t
A(t) = P⎝1 + r ⎠ .
2
More generally, if the money is compounded n times per year, the amount of money in the account after t years is given
by the function
nt
A(t) = P⎛⎝1 + nr ⎞⎠ .

What happens as n → ∞ ? To answer this question, we let m = n/r and write

mrt
1 + nr ⎞⎠ = ⎛⎝1 + m
1⎞
⎛
nt
⎝ ⎠ ,

and examine the behavior of (1 + 1/m) m as m → ∞, using a table of values (Table 1.12).

m 10 100 1000 10,000 100,000 1,000,000

m
⎛ 1⎞ 2.5937 2.7048 2.71692 2.71815 2.718268 2.718280
⎝1 + m⎠

m
⎛ 1⎞
Table 1.12 Values of ⎝1 + m ⎠ as m → ∞

Looking at this table, it appears that (1 + 1/m) m is approaching a number between 2.7 and 2.8 as m → ∞. In fact,
(1 + 1/m) m does approach some number as m → ∞. We call this number e . To six decimal places of accuracy,
e ≈ 2.718282.
The letter e was first used to represent this number by the Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler during the 1720s. Although
Euler did not discover the number, he showed many important connections between e and logarithmic functions. We still
use the notation e today to honor Euler’s work because it appears in many areas of mathematics and because we can use it
in many practical applications.
Returning to our savings account example, we can conclude that if a person puts P dollars in an account at an annual
interest rate r, compounded continuously, then A(t) = Pe rt. This function may be familiar. Since functions involving
base e arise often in applications, we call the function f (x) = e x the natural exponential function. Not only is this
function interesting because of the definition of the number e, but also, as discussed next, its graph has an important
property.
Since e > 1, we know e x is increasing on (−∞, ∞). In Figure 1.45, we show a graph of f (x) = e x along with a
tangent line to the graph of at x = 0. We give a precise definition of tangent line in the next chapter; but, informally, we
say a tangent line to a graph of f at x = a is a line that passes through the point ⎛⎝a, f (a)⎞⎠ and has the same “slope” as
f at that point . The function f (x) = e x is the only exponential function b x with tangent line at x = 0 that has a slope
of 1. As we see later in the text, having this property makes the natural exponential function the most simple exponential
function to use in many instances.

This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col11964/1.12

Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs 101

Figure 1.45 The graph of f (x) = e x has a tangent line with

slope 1 at x = 0.

Example 1.35

Compounding Interest

Suppose $500 is invested in an account at an annual interest rate of r = 5.5%, compounded continuously.

a. Let t denote the number of years after the initial investment and A(t) denote the amount of money in
the account at time t. Find a formula for A(t).

b. Find the amount of money in the account after 10 years and after 20 years.

Solution
a. If P dollars are invested in an account at an annual interest rate r, compounded continuously, then
A(t) = Pe rt. Here P = $500 and r = 0.055. Therefore, A(t) = 500e 0.055t.
b. After 10 years, the amount of money in the account is

A(10) = 500e 0.055 · 10 = 500e 0.55 ≈ $866.63.

After 20 years, the amount of money in the account is

A(20) = 500e 0.055 · 20 = 500e 1.1 ≈ $1, 502.08.

1.29 If $750 is invested in an account at an annual interest rate of 4%, compounded continuously, find a
formula for the amount of money in the account after t years. Find the amount of money after 30 years.

Logarithmic Functions
Using our understanding of exponential functions, we can discuss their inverses, which are the logarithmic functions. These
come in handy when we need to consider any phenomenon that varies over a wide range of values, such as pH in chemistry
or decibels in sound levels.
The exponential function f (x) = b x is one-to-one, with domain (−∞, ∞) and range (0, ∞). Therefore, it has an inverse
function, called the logarithmic function with base b. For any b > 0, b ≠ 1, the logarithmic function with base b,
denoted log b, has domain (0, ∞) and range (−∞, ∞), and satisfies

log b (x) = y if and only if b y = x.

For example,
102 Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs

log 2(8) = 3 since 2 3 = 8,

⎛ ⎞
log 10 ⎝ 1 ⎠ = −2 since 10 −2 = 1 2 = 1 ,
100 10 100
0
log b(1) = 0 since b = 1 for any base b > 0.

Furthermore, since y = log b(x) and y = b x are inverse functions,

log b (x)
log b (b x) = x and b = x.

The most commonly used logarithmic function is the function log e. Since this function uses natural e as its base, it is
called the natural logarithm. Here we use the notation ln(x) or ln x to mean log e (x). For example,

ln(e) = log e (e) = 1, ln⎛⎝e 3⎞⎠ = log e ⎛⎝e 3⎞⎠ = 3, ln(1) = log e (1) = 0.

Since the functions f (x) = e x and g(x) = ln(x) are inverses of each other,

ln(e x) = x and e ln x = x,
and their graphs are symmetric about the line y = x (Figure 1.46).

Figure 1.46 The functions y = e x and y = ln(x) are

inverses of each other, so their graphs are symmetric about the
line y = x.

At this site (http://www.openstax.org/l/20_logscale) you can see an example of a base-10 logarithmic scale.

In general, for any base b > 0, b ≠ 1, the function g(x) = log b(x) is symmetric about the line y = x with the function
f (x) = b x. Using this fact and the graphs of the exponential functions, we graph functions log b for several values of
b > 1 (Figure 1.47).

This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col11964/1.12

Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs 103

Figure 1.47 Graphs of y = log b(x) are depicted for

b = 2, e, 10.

Before solving some equations involving exponential and logarithmic functions, let’s review the basic properties of
logarithms.

Rule: Properties of Logarithms

If a, b, c > 0, b ≠ 1, and r is any real number, then

1. log b (ac) = log b (a) + log b (c) (Product property)

2. log b ⎛⎝ac ⎞⎠ = log b (a) − log b (c) (Quotient property)
3. log b (a r) = rlog b (a) (Power property)

Example 1.36

Solving Equations Involving Exponential Functions

Solve each of the following equations for x.

a. 5x = 2
b. e x + 6e −x = 5

Solution
a. Applying the natural logarithm function to both sides of the equation, we have
ln5 x = ln2.

Using the power property of logarithms,

x ln5 = ln2.

Therefore, x = ln2/ln5.

b. Multiplying both sides of the equation by e x, we arrive at the equation

e 2x + 6 = 5e x.
104 Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs

Rewriting this equation as

e 2x − 5e x + 6 = 0,

we can then rewrite it as a quadratic equation in e x :

(e x) 2 − 5(e x) + 6 = 0.

Now we can solve the quadratic equation. Factoring this equation, we obtain
(e x − 3)(e x − 2) = 0.

Therefore, the solutions satisfy e x = 3 and e x = 2. Taking the natural logarithm of both sides gives us
the solutions x = ln3, ln2.

1.30 Solve e 2x /(3 + e 2x) = 1/2.

Example 1.37

Solving Equations Involving Logarithmic Functions

Solve each of the following equations for x.

a. ln⎛⎝1x ⎞⎠ = 4

b. log 10 x + log 10 x = 2

c. ln(2x) − 3ln⎛⎝x 2⎞⎠ = 0

Solution
a. By the definition of the natural logarithm function,

ln⎛⎝1x ⎞⎠ = 4 if and only if e 4 = 1x .

Therefore, the solution is x = 1/e 4.

b. Using the product and power properties of logarithmic functions, rewrite the left-hand side of the equation
as

log 10 x + log 10 x = log 10 x x = log 10 x 3/2 = 3 log 10 x.

2

Therefore, the equation can be rewritten as

3 log x = 2 or log x = 4 .
2 10 10 3

This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col11964/1.12

Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs 105

3
The solution is x = 10 4/3 = 10 10.
⎛ ⎞
c. Using the power property of logarithmic functions, we can rewrite the equation as ln(2x) − ln⎝x 6⎠ = 0.
Using the quotient property, this becomes
⎛ ⎞
ln 25 = 0.
⎝x ⎠

5
Therefore, 2/x 5 = 1, which implies x = 2. We should then check for any extraneous solutions.

1.31 Solve ln⎛⎝x 3⎞⎠ − 4ln(x) = 1.

When evaluating a logarithmic function with a calculator, you may have noticed that the only options are log 10 or log,
called the common logarithm, or ln, which is the natural logarithm. However, exponential functions and logarithm functions
can be expressed in terms of any desired base b. If you need to use a calculator to evaluate an expression with a different
base, you can apply the change-of-base formulas first. Using this change of base, we typically write a given exponential or
logarithmic function in terms of the natural exponential and natural logarithmic functions.

Rule: Change-of-Base Formulas

Let a > 0, b > 0, and a ≠ 1, b ≠ 1.
xlog b a
1. ax = b for any real number x.
xlog e a
If b = e, this equation reduces to a x = e = e x lna.
log b x
2. log a x = for any real number x > 0.
log b a
If b = e, this equation reduces to log a x = ln x .
lna

Proof
For the first change-of-base formula, we begin by making use of the power property of logarithmic functions. We know that
for any base b > 0, b ≠ 1, log b(a x) = xlog b a. Therefore,

log b(a x) xlog b a

b =b .
x
In addition, we know that b and log b(x) are inverse functions. Therefore,

log b(a x)
b = a x.
xlog b a
Combining these last two equalities, we conclude that a x = b .
To prove the second property, we show that
(log b a) · (log a x) = log b x.

Let u = log b a, v = log a x, and w = log b x. We will show that u · v = w. By the definition of logarithmic functions, we
106 Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs

know that b u = a, a v = x, and b w = x. From the previous equations, we see that

b uv = (b u) v = a v = x = b w.

Therefore, b uv = b w. Since exponential functions are one-to-one, we can conclude that u · v = w.

□

Example 1.38

Changing Bases

Use a calculating utility to evaluate log 3 7 with the change-of-base formula presented earlier.

Solution
Use the second equation with a = 3 and e = 3:

log 3 7 = ln7 ≈ 1.77124.

ln3

1.32 Use the change-of-base formula and a calculating utility to evaluate log 4 6.

Example 1.39

Chapter Opener: The Richter Scale for Earthquakes

Figure 1.48 (credit: modification of work by Robb

Hannawacker, NPS)

In 1935, Charles Richter developed a scale (now known as the Richter scale) to measure the magnitude of an
earthquake. The scale is a base-10 logarithmic scale, and it can be described as follows: Consider one earthquake
with magnitude R 1 on the Richter scale and a second earthquake with magnitude R 2 on the Richter scale.
Suppose R 1 > R 2, which means the earthquake of magnitude R 1 is stronger, but how much stronger is it than
the other earthquake? A way of measuring the intensity of an earthquake is by using a seismograph to measure
the amplitude of the earthquake waves. If A 1 is the amplitude measured for the first earthquake and A 2 is the
amplitude measured for the second earthquake, then the amplitudes and magnitudes of the two earthquakes satisfy
the following equation:
⎛A1 ⎞
R 1 − R 2 = log 10
⎝ A 2 ⎠.
Consider an earthquake that measures 8 on the Richter scale and an earthquake that measures 7 on the Richter
scale. Then,

This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col11964/1.12

Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs 107

⎛A1 ⎞
8 − 7 = log 10
⎝ A 2 ⎠.
Therefore,
⎛A1 ⎞
log 10
⎝ A 2 ⎠ = 1,
which implies A 1 /A 2 = 10 or A 1 = 10A 2. Since A 1 is 10 times the size of A 2, we say that the first
earthquake is 10 times as intense as the second earthquake. On the other hand, if one earthquake measures 8 on
the Richter scale and another measures 6, then the relative intensity of the two earthquakes satisfies the equation
⎛A1 ⎞
log 10
⎝ A 2 ⎠ = 8 − 6 = 2.
Therefore, A 1 = 100A 2. That is, the first earthquake is 100 times more intense than the second earthquake.

How can we use logarithmic functions to compare the relative severity of the magnitude 9 earthquake in Japan in
2011 with the magnitude 7.3 earthquake in Haiti in 2010?

Solution
To compare the Japan and Haiti earthquakes, we can use an equation presented earlier:
⎛A1 ⎞
9 − 7.3 = log 10
⎝ A 2 ⎠.

Therefore, A 1 /A 2 = 10 1.7, and we conclude that the earthquake in Japan was approximately 50 times more
intense than the earthquake in Haiti.

1.33 Compare the relative severity of a magnitude 8.4 earthquake with a magnitude 7.4 earthquake.

Hyperbolic Functions
The hyperbolic functions are defined in terms of certain combinations of e x and e −x. These functions arise naturally
in various engineering and physics applications, including the study of water waves and vibrations of elastic membranes.
Another common use for a hyperbolic function is the representation of a hanging chain or cable, also known as a catenary
(Figure 1.49). If we introduce a coordinate system so that the low point of the chain lies along the y -axis, we can describe
the height of the chain in terms of a hyperbolic function. First, we define the hyperbolic functions.
108 Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs

Figure 1.49 The shape of a strand of silk in a spider’s web

can be described in terms of a hyperbolic function. The same
shape applies to a chain or cable hanging from two supports with
only its own weight. (credit: “Mtpaley”, Wikimedia Commons)

Definition
Hyperbolic cosine
x −x
cosh x = e + e
2
Hyperbolic sine
x −x
sinh x = e − e
2
Hyperbolic tangent
x −x
tanh x = sinh x = e x − e −x
cosh x e + e
Hyperbolic cosecant

csch x = 1 = 2
sinh x e x − e −x
Hyperbolic secant

sech x = 1 = 2
cosh x e x + e −x
Hyperbolic cotangent
x −x
coth x = cosh x = e x + e −x
sinh x e − e

The name cosh rhymes with “gosh,” whereas the name sinh is pronounced “cinch.” Tanh, sech, csch, and coth are
pronounced “tanch,” “seech,” “coseech,” and “cotanch,” respectively.
Using the definition of cosh(x) and principles of physics, it can be shown that the height of a hanging chain, such as the
one in Figure 1.49, can be described by the function h(x) = acosh(x/a) + c for certain constants a and c.

But why are these functions called hyperbolic functions? To answer this question, consider the quantity cosh 2 t − sinh 2 t.
Using the definition of cosh and sinh, we see that

This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col11964/1.12

Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs 109

2t −2t 2t −2t
cosh 2 t − sinh 2 t = e + 2 + e − e −2+e = 1.
4 4

This identity is the analog of the trigonometric identity cos 2 t + sin 2 t = 1. Here, given a value t, the point
(x, y) = (cosht, sinht) lies on the unit hyperbola x 2 − y 2 = 1 (Figure 1.50).

Figure 1.50 The unit hyperbola cosh 2 t − sinh 2 t = 1.

Graphs of Hyperbolic Functions

To graph cosh x and sinh x, we make use of the fact that both functions approach (1/2)e x as x → ∞, since e −x → 0
as x → ∞. As x → −∞, cosh x approaches 1/2e −x, whereas sinh x approaches −1/2e −x. Therefore, using the graphs
of 1/2e x, 1/2e −x, and −1/2e −x as guides, we graph cosh x and sinh x. To graph tanh x, we use the fact that
tanh(0) = 0, −1 < tanh(x) < 1 for all x, tanh x → 1 as x → ∞, and tanh x → −1 as x → −∞. The graphs of the
other three hyperbolic functions can be sketched using the graphs of cosh x, sinh x, and tanh x (Figure 1.51).
110 Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs

Figure 1.51 The hyperbolic functions involve combinations of e x and

e −x.

Identities Involving Hyperbolic Functions

The identity cosh 2 t − sinh 2 t, shown in Figure 1.50, is one of several identities involving the hyperbolic functions,
some of which are listed next. The first four properties follow easily from the definitions of hyperbolic sine and hyperbolic
cosine. Except for some differences in signs, most of these properties are analogous to identities for trigonometric functions.

Rule: Identities Involving Hyperbolic Functions

1. cosh(−x) = cosh x
2. sinh(−x) = −sinh x

3. cosh x + sinh x = e x
4. cosh x − sinh x = e −x

This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col11964/1.12

Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs 111

5. cosh 2 x − sinh 2 x = 1

6. 1 − tanh 2 x = sech 2 x

7. coth 2 x − 1 = csch 2 x
8. sinh(x ± y) = sinh x cosh y ± cosh x sinh y

9. cosh(x ± y) = cosh x cosh y ± sinh x sinh y

Example 1.40

Evaluating Hyperbolic Functions

a. Simplify sinh(5ln x).

b. If sinh x = 3/4, find the values of the remaining five hyperbolic functions.

Solution
a. Using the definition of the sinh function, we write
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
ln⎝x 5⎠ ln⎝x −5⎠
5ln x
sinh(5ln x) = e − e −5ln x = e −e 5 −5
= x −x .
2 2 2
b. Using the identity cosh 2 x − sinh 2 x = 1, we see that

⎛ ⎞
2
cosh 2 x = 1 + ⎝3 ⎠ = 25 .
4 16

Since cosh x ≥ 1 for all x, we must have cosh x = 5/4. Then, using the definitions for the other
hyperbolic functions, we conclude that tanh x = 3/5, csch x = 4/3, sech x = 4/5, and coth x = 5/3.

1.34 Simplify cosh(2ln x).

Inverse Hyperbolic Functions

From the graphs of the hyperbolic functions, we see that all of them are one-to-one except cosh x and sech x. If we
restrict the domains of these two functions to the interval [0, ∞), then all the hyperbolic functions are one-to-one, and we
can define the inverse hyperbolic functions. Since the hyperbolic functions themselves involve exponential functions, the
inverse hyperbolic functions involve logarithmic functions.

Definition
Inverse Hyperbolic Functions
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
sinh −1 x = arcsinh x = ln⎝x + x 2 + 1⎠ cosh −1 x = arccosh x = ln⎝x + x 2 − 1⎠
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
tanh −1 x = arctanh x = 1 ln⎝1 + x ⎠ coth −1 x = arccot x = 1 ln⎝ x + 1 ⎠
2 1−x 2 x−1
⎛ 2 ⎞ 2 ⎛ ⎞
sech −1 x = arcsech x = ln⎜1 + 1x − x ⎟ csch −1 x = arccsch x = ln⎜1x + 1 + x ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ | x| ⎠
112 Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs

Let’s look at how to derive the first equation. The others follow similarly. Suppose y = sinh −1 x. Then, x = sinh y and,
y −y
by the definition of the hyperbolic sine function, x = e − e . Therefore,
2
−y
e y − 2x − e = 0.
y
Multiplying this equation by e , we obtain
2y
e − 2xe y − 1 = 0.
This can be solved like a quadratic equation, with the solution
2
e y = 2x ± 4x + 4 = x ± x 2 + 1.
2
Since e y > 0, the only solution is the one with the positive sign. Applying the natural logarithm to both sides of the
equation, we conclude that
⎛ ⎞
y = ln⎝x + x 2 + 1⎠.

Example 1.41

Evaluating Inverse Hyperbolic Functions

Evaluate each of the following expressions.

sinh −1 (2)
tanh −1(1/4)

Solution
⎛ ⎞
sinh −1 (2) = ln⎝2 + 2 2 + 1⎠ = ln⎛⎝2 + 5⎞⎠ ≈ 1.4436

⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
tanh −1(1/4) = 1 ln⎝1 + 1/4 ⎠ = 1 ln⎝5/4 ⎠ = 1 ln⎝5 ⎠ ≈ 0.2554
2 1 − 1/4 2 3/4 2 3

1.35 Evaluate tanh −1(1/2).

This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col11964/1.12

Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs 113

1.5 EXERCISES
For the following exercises, evaluate the given exponential 234.
functions as indicated, accurate to two significant digits
after the decimal.

229. f (x) = 5 x a. x = 3 b. x = 1 c. x = 2
2

230. f (x) = (0.3) x a. x = −1 b. x = 4 c. x = −1.5

231. f (x) = 10 x a. x = −2 b. x = 4 c. x = 5
3

232. f (x) = e x a. x = 2 b. x = −3.2 c. x = π

For the following exercises, match the exponential equation

to the correct graph.
a. y = 4 −x

b. y = 3x − 1

c. y = 2x + 1

⎛ ⎞
x
d. y = ⎝1 ⎠ + 2
2
e. y = −3 −x

f. y = 1 − 5x
235.
233.
114 Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs

236. For the following exercises, sketch the graph of the

exponential function. Determine the domain, range, and
horizontal asymptote.

239. f (x) = e x + 2

240. f (x) = −2 x

241. f (x) = 3 x + 1

242. f (x) = 4 x − 1

243. f (x) = 1 − 2 −x

244. f (x) = 5 x + 1 + 2

245. f (x) = e −x − 1

237. For the following exercises, write the equation in

equivalent exponential form.

246. log 3 81 = 4

247. log 8 2 = 1
3

248. log 5 1 = 0

249. log 5 25 = 2

250. log0.1 = −1

⎛ ⎞
251. ln 13 = −3
⎝e ⎠

252. log 9 3 = 0.5

238.
253. ln1 = 0

For the following exercises, write the equation in

equivalent logarithmic form.

254. 2 3 = 8

255. 4 −2 = 1
16

256. 10 2 = 100

257. 9 0 = 1

⎛ ⎞
3
258. ⎝1 ⎠ = 1
3 27

This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col11964/1.12

Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs 115

3
259. 64 = 4 279. 4 x + 1 − 32 = 0

260. e x = y 280. 3 x/14 = 1

10
261. 9 y = 150 281. 10 x = 7.21

262. b 3 = 45 282. 4 · 2 3x − 20 = 0

263. 4 −3/2 = 0.125 283. 7 3x − 2 = 11

For the following exercises, sketch the graph of the For the following exercises, solve the logarithmic equation
logarithmic function. Determine the domain, range, and exactly, if possible.
vertical asymptote.
284. log 3 x = 0
264. f (x) = 3 + ln x
285. log 5 x = −2
265. f (x) = ln(x − 1)
286. log 4 (x + 5) = 0
266. f (x) = ln(−x)

287. log(2x − 7) = 0
267. f (x) = 1 − ln x

268. f (x) = log x − 1 288. ln x + 3 = 2

289. log 6 (x + 9) + log 6 x = 2

269. f (x) = ln(x + 1)

For the following exercises, use properties of logarithms to 290. log 4 (x + 2) − log 4 (x − 1) = 0
write the expressions as a sum, difference, and/or product
of logarithms. 291. ln x + ln(x − 2) = ln4

270. logx 4 y For the following exercises, use the change-of-base

formula and either base 10 or base e to evaluate the given
3 expressions. Answer in exact form and in approximate
271. log 3 9a form, rounding to four decimal places.
b

3
292. log 5 47
272. lna b
293. log 7 82
3
273. log 5 125xy
294. log 6 103
3
xy
274. log 4
64 295. log 0.5 211

⎛ ⎞ 296. log 2 π
275. ln⎜ 6 ⎟
⎝ e3⎠
297. log 0.2 0.452
For the following exercises, solve the exponential equation
exactly. 298. Rewrite the following expressions in terms of
exponentials and simplify. a. 2cosh(ln x) b.
276. 5 x = 125 cosh4x + sinh4x c. cosh2x − sinh2x d.
ln(cosh x + sinh x) + ln(cosh x − sinh x)
277. e 3x − 15 = 0

278. 8 x = 4
116 Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs

299. [T] The number of bacteria N in a culture after t days 305. [T] According to the World Bank, at the end of
can be modeled by the function N(t) = 1300 · (2) t/4. Find 2013 ( t = 0 ) the U.S. population was 316 million and
the number of bacteria present after 15 days. was increasing according to the following model:
P(t) = 316e 0.0074t, where P is measured in millions of
300. [T] The demand D (in millions of barrels) for oil people and t is measured in years after 2013.
in an oil-rich country is given by the function a. Based on this model, what will be the population of
−0.25p
D(p) = 150 · (2.7) , where p is the price (in dollars) the United States in 2020?
of a barrel of oil. Find the amount of oil demanded (to the b. Determine when the U.S. population will be twice
nearest million barrels) when the price is between $15 and what it is in 2013.
$20.
306. [T] The amount A accumulated after 1000 dollars is
301. [T] The amount A of a $100,000 investment paying invested for t years at an interest rate of 4% is modeled by
continuously and compounded for t years is given by the function A(t) = 1000(1.04) t.
A(t) = 100,000 · e 0.055t. Find the amount A accumulated a. Find the amount accumulated after 5 years and 10
years.
in 5 years.
b. Determine how long it takes for the original
302. [T] An investment is compounded monthly, investment to triple.
quarterly, or yearly and is given by the function
307. [T] A bacterial colony grown in a lab is known to
⎛ j⎞
nt
A = P⎝1 + n ⎠ , where A is the value of the investment double in number in 12 hours. Suppose, initially, there are
1000 bacteria present.
at time t, P is the initial principle that was invested, j a. Use the exponential function Q = Q 0 e kt to
is the annual interest rate, and n is the number of time determine the value k, which is the growth rate of
the interest is compounded per year. Given a yearly interest the bacteria. Round to four decimal places.
rate of 3.5% and an initial principle of $100,000, find the b. Determine approximately how long it takes for
amount A accumulated in 5 years for interest that is 200,000 bacteria to grow.
compounded a. daily, b., monthly, c. quarterly, and d.
yearly. 308. [T] The rabbit population on a game reserve doubles
every 6 months. Suppose there were 120 rabbits initially.
303. [T] The concentration of hydrogen ions in a a. Use the exponential function P = P 0 a t to
substance is denoted by ⎡⎣H+ ⎤⎦, measured in moles per
determine the growth rate constant a. Round to
liter. The pH of a substance is defined by the logarithmic four decimal places.
function pH = −log⎡⎣H+ ⎤⎦. This function is used to b. Use the function in part a. to determine
measure the acidity of a substance. The pH of water is 7. A approximately how long it takes for the rabbit
substance with a pH less than 7 is an acid, whereas one that population to reach 3500.
has a pH of more than 7 is a base.
309. [T] The 1906 earthquake in San Francisco had a
a. Find the pH of the following substances. Round
magnitude of 8.3 on the Richter scale. At the same time,
answers to one digit.
in Japan, an earthquake with magnitude 4.9 caused only
b. Determine whether the substance is an acid or a
minor damage. Approximately how much more energy was
base.
released by the San Francisco earthquake than by the
i. Eggs: ⎡⎣H+ ⎤⎦ = 1.6 × 10 −8 mol/L Japanese earthquake?
ii. Beer: ⎡⎣H+ ⎤⎦ = 3.16 × 10 −3 mol/L

iii. Tomato Juice: ⎡⎣H+ ⎤⎦ = 7.94 × 10 −5 mol/L

304. [T] Iodine-131 is a radioactive substance that decays

according to the function Q(t) = Q 0 · e −0.08664t, where
Q 0 is the initial quantity of a sample of the substance and t
is in days. Determine how long it takes (to the nearest day)
for 95% of a quantity to decay.

This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col11964/1.12

Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs 117

CHAPTER 1 REVIEW
KEY TERMS
absolute value function ⎧−x, x < 0
f (x) = ⎨
⎩ x, x ≥ 0

algebraic function a function involving any combination of only the basic operations of addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division, powers, and roots applied to an input variable x

base the number b in the exponential function f (x) = b x and the logarithmic function f (x) = log b x

composite function given two functions f and g, a new function, denoted g ∘ f , such that ⎛⎝g ∘ f ⎞⎠(x) = g⎛⎝ f (x)⎞⎠

cubic function a polynomial of degree 3; that is, a function of the form f (x) = ax 3 + bx 2 + cx + d, where a ≠ 0

decreasing on the interval I a function decreasing on the interval I if, for all x 1, x 2 ∈ I, f (x 1) ≥ f (x 2) if
x1 < x2

degree for a polynomial function, the value of the largest exponent of any term
dependent variable the output variable for a function
domain the set of inputs for a function
even function a function is even if f (−x) = f (x) for all x in the domain of f

exponent the value x in the expression b x

function a set of inputs, a set of outputs, and a rule for mapping each input to exactly one output
graph of a function the set of points (x, y) such that x is in the domain of f and y = f (x)

horizontal line test a function f is one-to-one if and only if every horizontal line intersects the graph of f , at most,
once
hyperbolic functions the functions denoted sinh, cosh, tanh, csch, sech, and coth, which involve certain
x −x
combinations of e and e

increasing on the interval I a function increasing on the interval I if for all x 1, x 2 ∈ I, f (x 1) ≤ f (x 2) if x 1 < x 2

independent variable the input variable for a function

inverse function for a function f , the inverse function f −1 satisfies f −1 (y) = x if f (x) = y

inverse hyperbolic functions the inverses of the hyperbolic functions where cosh and sech are restricted to the
domain [0, ∞); each of these functions can be expressed in terms of a composition of the natural logarithm function
and an algebraic function
inverse trigonometric functions the inverses of the trigonometric functions are defined on restricted domains where
they are one-to-one functions
linear function a function that can be written in the form f (x) = mx + b

logarithmic function a function of the form f (x) = log b (x) for some base b > 0, b ≠ 1 such that y = log b(x) if
and only if b y = x

mathematical model A method of simulating real-life situations with mathematical equations

natural exponential function the function f (x) = e x
118 Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs

natural logarithm the function ln x = log x

e

number e as m gets larger, the quantity (1 + (1/m) m gets closer to some real number; we define that real number to be
e; the value of e is approximately 2.718282

odd function a function is odd if f (−x) = − f (x) for all x in the domain of f

one-to-one function a function f is one-to-one if f (x 1) ≠ f (x 2) if x 1 ≠ x 2

periodic function a function is periodic if it has a repeating pattern as the values of x move from left to right

piecewise-defined function a function that is defined differently on different parts of its domain
point-slope equation equation of a linear function indicating its slope and a point on the graph of the function
polynomial function a function of the form f (x) = a n x n + a n−1
n−1x + … + a1 x + a0

power function a function of the form f (x) = x n for any positive integer n ≥ 1

quadratic function a polynomial of degree 2; that is, a function of the form f (x) = ax 2 + bx + c where a ≠ 0

radians for a circular arc of length s on a circle of radius 1, the radian measure of the associated angle θ is s

range the set of outputs for a function

rational function a function of the form f (x) = p(x)/q(x), where p(x) and q(x) are polynomials

restricted domain a subset of the domain of a function f

root function a function of the form f (x) = x 1/n for any integer n ≥ 2

slope the change in y for each unit change in x

slope-intercept form equation of a linear function indicating its slope and y-intercept
symmetry about the origin the graph of a function f is symmetric about the origin if (−x, −y) is on the graph of f
whenever (x, y) is on the graph

symmetry about the y-axis the graph of a function f is symmetric about the y -axis if (−x, y) is on the graph of f
whenever (x, y) is on the graph

table of values a table containing a list of inputs and their corresponding outputs
transcendental function a function that cannot be expressed by a combination of basic arithmetic operations
transformation of a function a shift, scaling, or reflection of a function
trigonometric functions functions of an angle defined as ratios of the lengths of the sides of a right triangle
trigonometric identity an equation involving trigonometric functions that is true for all angles θ for which the
functions in the equation are defined
vertical line test given the graph of a function, every vertical line intersects the graph, at most, once
zeros of a function when a real number x is a zero of a function f , f (x) = 0

KEY EQUATIONS
• Composition of two functions
⎛
⎝g ∘ f ⎞⎠(x) = g⎛⎝ f (x)⎞⎠

• Absolute value function

⎧−x, x < 0
f (x) = ⎨
⎩ x, x ≥ 0

This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col11964/1.12

Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs 119

• Point-slope equation of a line

y − y 1 = m(x − x 1)

• Slope-intercept form of a line

y = mx + b

• Standard form of a line

ax + by = c

• Polynomial function
f (x) = a n x n + a n − 1 x n − 1 + ⋯ + a 1 x + a 0

• Generalized sine function

f (x) = Asin⎛⎝B(x − α)⎞⎠ + C

• Inverse functions
f −1 ⎛⎝ f (x)⎞⎠ = x for all x in D, and f ⎛⎝ f −1 (y)⎞⎠ = y for all y in R.

KEY CONCEPTS
1.1 Review of Functions

• A function is a mapping from a set of inputs to a set of outputs with exactly one output for each input.
• If no domain is stated for a function y = f (x), the domain is considered to be the set of all real numbers x for
which the function is defined.
• When sketching the graph of a function f , each vertical line may intersect the graph, at most, once.

• A function may have any number of zeros, but it has, at most, one y-intercept.
• To define the composition g ∘ f , the range of f must be contained in the domain of g.

• Even functions are symmetric about the y -axis whereas odd functions are symmetric about the origin.

1.2 Basic Classes of Functions

• The power function f (x) = x n is an even function if n is even and n ≠ 0, and it is an odd function if n is odd.

• The root function f (x) = x 1/n has the domain [0, ∞) if n is even and the domain (−∞, ∞) if n is odd. If n
is odd, then f (x) = x 1/n is an odd function.

• The domain of the rational function f (x) = p(x)/q(x), where p(x) and q(x) are polynomial functions, is the set
of x such that q(x) ≠ 0.

• Functions that involve the basic operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and powers are
algebraic functions. All other functions are transcendental. Trigonometric, exponential, and logarithmic functions
are examples of transcendental functions.
• A polynomial function f with degree n ≥ 1 satisfies f (x) → ±∞ as x → ±∞. The sign of the output as
x → ∞ depends on the sign of the leading coefficient only and on whether n is even or odd.
• Vertical and horizontal shifts, vertical and horizontal scalings, and reflections about the x - and y -axes are
examples of transformations of functions.

1.3 Trigonometric Functions

• Radian measure is defined such that the angle associated with the arc of length 1 on the unit circle has radian
measure 1. An angle with a degree measure of 180° has a radian measure of π rad.
120 Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs

• For acute angles θ, the values of the trigonometric functions are defined as ratios of two sides of a right triangle
in which one of the acute angles is θ.
• For a general angle θ, let (x, y) be a point on a circle of radius r corresponding to this angle θ. The
trigonometric functions can be written as ratios involving x, y, and r.

• The trigonometric functions are periodic. The sine, cosine, secant, and cosecant functions have period 2π. The
tangent and cotangent functions have period π.

1.4 Inverse Functions

• For a function to have an inverse, the function must be one-to-one. Given the graph of a function, we can determine
whether the function is one-to-one by using the horizontal line test.
• If a function is not one-to-one, we can restrict the domain to a smaller domain where the function is one-to-one and
then define the inverse of the function on the smaller domain.
• For a function f and its inverse f −1, f ⎛⎝ f −1 (x)⎞⎠ = x for all x in the domain of f −1 and f −1 ⎛⎝ f (x)⎞⎠ = x for all
x in the domain of f .

• Since the trigonometric functions are periodic, we need to restrict their domains to define the inverse trigonometric
functions.
• The graph of a function f and its inverse f −1 are symmetric about the line y = x.

1.5 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

• The exponential function y = b x is increasing if b > 1 and decreasing if 0 < b < 1. Its domain is (−∞, ∞)
and its range is (0, ∞).

• The logarithmic function y = log b(x) is the inverse of y = b x. Its domain is (0, ∞) and its range is (−∞, ∞).

• The natural exponential function is y = e x and the natural logarithmic function is y = ln x = log e x.

• Given an exponential function or logarithmic function in base a, we can make a change of base to convert this
function to any base b > 0, b ≠ 1. We typically convert to base e.

• The hyperbolic functions involve combinations of the exponential functions e x and e −x. As a result, the inverse
hyperbolic functions involve the natural logarithm.

CHAPTER 1 REVIEW EXERCISES

True or False? Justify your answer with a proof or a f = x 2 + 2x − 3, g = ln(x − 5), h= 1
counterexample. x+4
310. A function is always one-to-one. 314. h

311. f ∘ g = g ∘ f , assuming f and g are functions. 315. g

312. A relation that passes the horizontal and vertical line 316. h ∘ f
tests is a one-to-one function.
317. g ∘ f
313. A relation passing the horizontal line test is a
function.
Find the degree, y-intercept, and zeros for the following
polynomial functions.
For the following problems, state the domain and range of
the given functions: 318. f (x) = 2x 2 + 9x − 5

This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col11964/1.12

Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs 121

319. f (x) = x 3 + 2x 2 − 2x 331. a. Find the equation C = f (x) that describes the
total cost as a function of number of shirts and b. determine
how many shirts he must sell to break even if he sells the
Simplify the following trigonometric expressions.
shirts for $10 each.
320. tan 2 x + cos 2 x
sec 2 x 332. a. Find the inverse function x = f −1(C) and
describe the meaning of this function. b. Determine how
321. cos 2 x - sin 2 x many shirts the owner can buy if he has $8000 to spend.

Solve the following trigonometric equations on the interval For the following problems, consider the population of
θ = [−2π, 2π] exactly. Ocean City, New Jersey, which is cyclical by season.
333. The population can be modeled by
322. 6cos 2 x − 3 = 0 P(t) = 82.5 − 67.5cos⎡⎣(π/6)t⎤⎦, where t is time in
months (t = 0 represents January 1) and P is population
2
323. sec x − 2sec x + 1 = 0 (in thousands). During a year, in what intervals is the
population less than 20,000? During what intervals is the
Solve the following logarithmic equations. population more than 140,000?

324. 5 x = 16
334. In reality, the overall population is most likely
increasing or decreasing throughout each year. Let’s
325. log 2(x + 4) = 3 reformulate the model as
P(t) = 82.5 − 67.5cos⎡⎣(π/6)t⎤⎦ + t, where t is time in
Are the following functions one-to-one over their domain months ( t = 0 represents January 1) and P is population
of existence? Does the function have an inverse? If so, find (in thousands). When is the first time the population
the inverse f −1(x) of the function. Justify your answer. reaches 200,000?

326. f (x) = x 2 + 2x + 1 For the following problems, consider radioactive dating. A

human skeleton is found in an archeological dig. Carbon
dating is implemented to determine how old the skeleton is
327. f (x) = 1x by using the equation y = e rt, where y is the percentage
of radiocarbon still present in the material, t is the number
For the following problems, determine the largest domain of years passed, and r = −0.0001210 is the decay rate of
on which the function is one-to-one and find the inverse on radiocarbon.
that domain.
335. If the skeleton is expected to be 2000 years old, what
328. f (x) = 9 − x percentage of radiocarbon should be present?

336. Find the inverse of the carbon-dating equation. What

329. f (x) = x 2 + 3x + 4
does it mean? If there is 25% radiocarbon, how old is the
skeleton?
330. A car is racing along a circular track with diameter of
1 mi. A trainer standing in the center of the circle marks his
progress every 5 sec. After 5 sec, the trainer has to turn 55°
to keep up with the car. How fast is the car traveling?

For the following problems, consider a restaurant owner

who wants to sell T-shirts advertising his brand. He recalls
that there is a fixed cost and variable cost, although he does
not remember the values. He does know that the T-shirt
printing company charges $440 for 20 shirts and $1000 for
100 shirts.
122 Chapter 1 | Functions and Graphs

This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col11964/1.12