Contents

1 Functions 3
1.0.1 Representations of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.0.2 Graph of a Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.0.3 Important Functions: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.1 Properties of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.1.1 Even and Odd Functions: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.1.2 Increasing and Decreasing Functions: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

1
Calculus Notes 2
Chapter 1

Functions

In this calculus course, our primary focus is on the behavior of real-valued functions. Func-
tions are a specific type of mathematical relation between two non-empty sets A and B.
Unless stated otherwise, we will assume that both A and B are subsets of the set of real
numbers R. Since functions are a particular type of relation, it is helpful to first define what
a generic relation is before narrowing down to functions.

Definition 1.0.1. A relation R : A → B is a subset of the cartesian product set A × B of A

and B.

Recall that the cartesian product of two sets A and B is the set

A × B = { (a, b) | a ∈ A & b ∈ B}

By definition, any subset of the set A × B gives us a relation. But functions are special kinds
of relations that are defined as follows:

Definition 1.0.2. A function f : D → E is a relation between the sets D and E such that
for each element, x ∈ D, there exists exactly one element, f (x) ∈ E.

Definition 1.0.3. The set D is called the domain of the function f , and it is the set on
whose elements we apply the rule f .

Definition 1.0.4. The set E is called the co-domain of the function f , and it is the set in
which f takes values after being applied to the elements of D.

Definition 1.0.5. The set

R = { f (x) | x ∈ A} ⊆ E

is called the range of f .

Remark 1.0.6. For us, D and E are subsets of the set of real numbers R.

Definition 1.0.7. We denote the element f (x) ∈ E by y = f (x). In this representation, x is

called independent variable, and y is called a dependent variable.

3
Calculus Notes 4

Remark 1.0.8. Understanding the difference between independent and dependent vari-
ables is crucial in mathematics. Typically, we denote the independent variable by the low-
ercase letter x, which is a common convention among mathematicians. The independent
variable x represents an element from the domain set of the function we are examining. In
contrast, the dependent variable, often denoted by y, represents the value that the function
assigns in the co-domain after being applied to x. The terms ”independent” and ”depen-
dent” reflect their roles: the existence and choice of x are not influenced by the function f ,
whereas the value of y directly depends on both x and the function f . In other words, while
x can be chosen freely within its domain, the outcome y cannot be determined without
knowing both x and the specific function f that links them.

Example 1.0.9.

a) let f1 : R → R be defined as
f1 (x) = 3x + 2
Note that for every value x in the domain, y1 = 3x + 2 is a unique element in the
co-domain. Furthermore, the range of f1 is the whole set R.

b) Let f2 : R → R be defined as
f2 (x) = x2
In this case, note that the value y2 = x2 can never be negative. The range of f2 is the
set of non-negative real numbers.

c) Let f3 : R → R be defined as
f3 (x) = ex
The range of f3 is the set of positive real numbers.

1.0.1 Representations of Functions

In general, there are four basic ways in which we can describe a function.
• Verbally: Describing a function using words.
• Numerically: Describing a function using a table of values.
• Visually: Describing a function using a graph.
• Algebraically: Describing a function using an explicit mathematical formula.

Each of these different methods of describing a function has its advantages. The most
powerful yet often the most challenging method is using an algebraic expression, especially
when one needs to derive it from one of the other three forms. For example, if someone is
working in a laboratory or at a company where function-related information is presented as
a table of values, they can only approximate the actual function. Finding a precise algebraic
expression may require additional effort and approximation techniques. However, once the
algebraic expression is determined, it becomes the most powerful tool. Throughout this
course, we will see that having the algebraic expression of a function allows us to extract
every piece of information we need about that function.
 5

In this class, we will primarily focus on the visual and algebraic descriptions of functions.
Our approach will begin with the algebraic representation of a given function. Using the
tools and techniques we will learn throughout this course, we will then construct its visual
representation. This visual representation will provide quick and intuitive insights into the
various behaviors of the function.

1.0.2 Graph of a Function

Recall that a function is simply a relation among two sets, we define the graph of a function
f : D → E to be the set of ordered pairs

Γ(f ) = {(x, f (x)) | x ∈ D }

Graphically, we represent the domain on the horizontal line and the co-domain on the ver-
tical line of the so-called xy−plane. The graph of f1 (x) = 3x + 2 is given below
y - axis

15

10

x - axis
-4 -2 2 4

-5

-10

Figure 1.1: Graph of y = 3x + 2

The graph of the function f2 (x) = x2 is

y - axis

25

20

15

10

x - axis
-4 -2 2 4

Figure 1.2: Graph of y = x2

and the graph of the function f3 (x) = ex is

Calculus Notes 6

y - axis

x - axis
-2 -1 1 2

Figure 1.3: Graph of y = ex

Note that in the the order pair (x, f (x)), the first component represents an element of the
domain D and the second component represents the element in E corresponding to x.
Examining the graph of a function provides valuable insights into the behavior and proper-
ties of the function. Some key facts that can be deduced from the graph are listed below:

1. Domain and Range:

• The domain represents all possible input values (x-values) for which the function
is defined.
• The range is the set of possible output values (y-values) the function can take.

2. Intercepts:

• x-intercepts (Roots or Zeros): Points where the graph crosses or touches the
x-axis, indicating that f (x) = 0.
• y-intercept: The point where the graph crosses the y-axis, indicating the value
of f (0).

3. Continuity:

• By observing whether the graph has any breaks, holes, or jumps, we can deter-
mine if the function is continuous over its domain.

4. Asymptotes:

• Vertical Asymptotes: Lines where the function approaches infinity or negative

infinity.
• Horizontal Asymptotes: Lines that the graph approaches as x goes to infinity or
negative infinity, showing the long-term behavior of the function.
• Oblique/Slant Asymptotes: Occur when the function grows without bound in a
non-horizontal manner.

5. Intervals of Increase and Decrease:

 7

• By examining the slopes of the graph, one can determine where the function is
increasing (going upwards) or decreasing (going downwards).

6. Local Extrema (Maxima and Minima):

• Local Maximum: Points where the function reaches a peak within a certain
interval.
• Local Minimum: Points where the function reaches a trough within a certain
interval.

7. Global Extrema:

• The highest and lowest points on the graph over its entire domain, represent the
absolute maximum and minimum values of the function.

8. Concavity and Points of Inflection:

• Concave Up: Sections of the graph where the curve opens upwards (like a cup).
• Concave Down: Sections where the curve opens downwards (like an upside-
down cup).
• Points of Inflection: Points where the graph changes concavity, indicating a
change in the rate of increase or decrease.

9. Symmetry:

• Even Function: Symmetrical about the y-axis, indicating f (x) = f (−x).

• Odd Function: Symmetrical about the origin, indicating f (−x) = −f (x).
• Periodic Functions: Repeating patterns, indicating regular intervals at which the
function repeats.

etc.
Understanding these features by analyzing the graph of a function helps in comprehensively
understanding the function’s behavior and characteristics.

1.0.3 Important Functions:

Some of the important classes of the functions are the following:

Linear Functions:
A function y = f (x) is called a linear function if its graph is a straight line. Such functions
are represented algebraically as
f (x) = mx + c
where m is called the slope (or gradient) of the line and c is the y− intercept (i.e. c = f (0)).
The domain and range of a linear function is R. Figure( 1.1 ) represents the graph of a linear
function.
Calculus Notes 8

Example 1.0.10. Let C be the cost of renting a bicycle from a company. The company
charges a fixed amount at the time of renting Rs. 100 and it charges Rs. 50 for every hour
the bike is rented. Then C can be calculated via the linear function

C(x) = 50x + 100

Here y − intercept represents the fixed cost and 50 represents the change in cost with a
change in rented hours.

Polynomial Functions:
A function y = P (x) where

P (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0

is called a polynomial function. Here, an , an−1 , · · · , a1 , a0 ∈ R are constants and called the
coefficients. n is called the degree of the polynomial.
A degree zero polynomial function is y = a, where a ∈ R. A degree one polynomial function
is just a linear function. A degree two polynomial function is of the type

y = ax2 + bx + c

The graph of different polynomial functions is given below

30

20

2
10
2x +3
x2 - 1
-4 -2 2 4
x3 + 3 x2 - x - 2
-10

-20

Figure 1.4: Graph of several polynomial functions

Upon analyzing the behavior of different polynomial functions in the above figure, note that
two features can be observed:
• The number of times the graph of a polynomial function of a certain degree intersects
with the x−axis is equal to (in general it will be less than or equal to) the degree of the
polynomial.
 9

• The polynomials with the even degree have both ends going upwards (generally both
upwards or downwards ) and the polynomials with an odd degree have both ends in the
opposite direction.

Both behaviors are generic. The number of times the graph of a polynomial function
crosses or touches the x−axis depends upon the number of real roots of the polynomial.
The domain of polynomial functions is the whole set of real numbers and the range again
depends upon the degree of the polynomial. For even degree polynomials, the range will be
a subset of R and for the odd degree polynomials, it is again the whole set of real numbers.

Rational Functions:
P (x)
A function of the form y = Q(x) , where P (x) and Q(x) are both polynomials, are called
rational functions.
For example,
1 + 2x
y=
x2 − 1
Note that, the domain of such functions depends upon the real roots of Q(x). The function
y = x1+2x 2
2 −1 is undefined when x − 1 = 0. The graph of y is given below

y - axis

x - axis
-4 -2 2 4

-2

-4

1+2x
Figure 1.5: Graph of y = x2 −1
Calculus Notes 10

Power Functions:
A function of the form f (x) = xa where a ∈ R is a constant, is called a power function.
Depending upon a we have several cases.
Case 1. a=n, where n is a positive integer
In this case, f (x) = xn is a special polynomial function with only one term with degree n.

x
4
x2
2
x3
-2 -1 1 2 x4
-2
x5
-4

-6

Figure 1.6: Several power functions where a is positive integer

Case 2. a=1/n, where n is a√positive integer

The function f (x) = x1/n = n x is called a root function. Depending upon n being even or
odd the domain of a root function is either [0, ∞) or R respectively. A graph of some root
functions is shown below

1 x

x
4

-4 -2 2 4
x
5
x
-1

Figure 1.7: Graph of several root functions

 11

Case 3. a=-1
The function f (x) = x1 is called a reciprocal function. Note that it is a special kind of
rational function and its domain is R − {0}.

10

-1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0

-5

-10

1
Figure 1.8: Graph of f (x) = x

Trigonometric functions:
Trigonometric functions are functions that involve trigonometric ratios like sin(x), cos(x)
and tan(x) and their reciprocal functions. Recall that sin(x) and cos(x) takes values in the
interval [−1, 1]. The domain of both sine and cosine functions is R.

1.0

0.5

sin(x)
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 cos(x)

-0.5

-1.0

Figure 1.9: Graph of sin(x) and cos(x)

sin(x)
Since f (x) = tan(x) = cos(x) , hence the domain of the Tan function cannot have points
Calculus Notes 12

where cos(x) = 0. Note that

cos(x) = 0 ⇐⇒ x = (2n + 1)π/2

where n ∈ Z. Hence the domain of the Tan function is R − {(2n + 1)π/2|n ∈ Z}. On the
other hand, the range of tan(x) is R.

-6 -4 -2 2 4 6

-2

-4

-6

Figure 1.10: Graph of f (x) = tan(x)

Note that in figures(1.9,1.10) the graph of trigonometric functions repeats their behavior
after a certain period in the domain. Functions of such nature are called periodic functions.

Definition 1.0.11. A function f : D → E is called periodic with period L > 0 if for every
x∈D
f (x + L) = f (x)

Both sine and cosine functions have period 2π and the Tan function has period π.

Remark 1.0.12. Recall that trigonometric functions apply to angle measurements. In cal-
culus, until otherwise mentioned, the angle x is measured in radians.

Exponential Functions:
A function of the form f (x) = bx , where b > 0 is a real number called the base, is called
an exponential function. Recall that, the power of any positive number is always positive
hence the range of f (x) is (0, ∞). Also, it is defined for any real number hence the domain
is R. Depending upon b the graph of exponential functions is of two types
Case 1. 0 < b ≤ 1
The graph for several values of 0 < b ≤ 1 is given below
Note that as expected, if we chose b closer and closer to 1 the graph is getting closer to the
line y = 1.
Case 2. b > 1
The graph for several values of b > 1 is given below
Note that f (0) = b0 = 1 for any b > 0. So in figure(1.11,1.12) every curve passes through
the point (0, 1) ∈ R2 . Hence a natural way to identify different exponential functions is to
 13

4
0.1x
3 0.5x
0.7x
2
0.9x
1x
1

-3 -2 -1 1 2 3

Figure 1.11: Graph of exponential function for several choices of 0 < b ≤ 1

15

2.x
10 2.5x
exp(x)
3.x
5
4.5x

-3 -2 -1 1 2 3

Figure 1.12: Graph of exponential function for several choices of b > 1

understand the rate at which the graph passes through (0, 1). In other words, the slope of
the tangent line to the function f (x) = bx at x = 0. There is a special choice for b such that
the slope of the tangent line at x = 0 is 1. This number b is denoted by e and is called the
exponential number.

Compositions and Inverses

Before we move on to our next kind of function, let me first define inverse functions.
Definition 1.0.13. Let f : B → C and g : A → B be two functions. The composite
function f ◦ g : A → C is defined by
(f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x))
Remark 1.0.14. By carefully defining the domains when constructing a composite function,
we can avoid the issue of choosing the appropriate domain. In practice, it’s important to
recognize from the right side of the equation that the domain of f ◦ g must be a subset, say
D, of the domain of g, where for each x ∈ D, g(x) must lie within the domain of f . This
ensures that the composition is well-defined.
√
Example 1.0.15. Let f (x) = x and g(x) = x2 − 1 then
p
(f ◦ g)(x) = f (x2 − 1) = x2 − 1
Calculus Notes 14

√
Note that,the domain of the function g(x) = x2 − 1 is R. The domain of f (x) = x is
[0, inf ty). Hence we should solve the following inequality

x2 − 1 ≥ 0

i.e. x ∈ (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, ∞). So the domain of f ◦ g is x ∈ (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, ∞).
√
Remark 1.0.16. Note that to get the domain of the function (f ◦ g)(x) = x2 − 1, we can
write the inequality, x2 − 1 ≥ 0, as

(x − 1)(x + 1) ≥ 0

We have two linear factors (polynomials of degree 1) on the left-hand side of the inequality.
So, we find the regions on the real line R where the product is positive
x2 − 1 > 0
x2 − 1 > 0

x+1<0 x−1>0 x+1>0

x−1<0

−1 1
x−1<0 x+1>0

x2 − 1 < 0

Figure 1.13: Region where x2 − 1 ≥ 0

Definition 1.0.17. A function f : D → E is called one-to-one function if whenever f (x1 ) =

f (x2 ) for some x, x2 ∈ D then x1 = x2 .

Horizontal Line test: Note that the definition of one-to-one functions implies that for a
particular value y ∈ E there is at most one x ∈ D. In other words, geometrically, a function
is one-to-one if and only if no horizontal line intersects its graph more than once.

Example 1.0.18. Consider the following two graphs

Definition 1.0.19. Let f be a one-to-one function with domain D and range R (it is impor-
tant to consider the range rather than the co-domain). Then its inverse function f −1 has
domain R and range A and is defined as

f −1 (y) = x ⇐⇒ f (x) = y

for any y ∈ R

The above definition says that if f maps x into y, then f −1 maps y back into x.
 15

15

10
x2
4
5

-4 -2 2 4

Figure 1.14: y = x2 is not a one-to-one function

x3
4
-2 -1 1 2
-5
0

-5

Figure 1.15: one-to-one function, y = x3

Remark 1.0.20. If f was not one-to-one than f −1 is not uniquely defined. For example if,

f (x) = x2

than for x = 1 and x = −1 we have

f (1) = 1 = f (−1)

but than f −1 (1) has no unique option. It can either map into 1 or −1.

Remark 1.0.21. f −1 (x) does not means 1

f (x) .

One important property of the inverse function f −1 of f is that the compositions

f −1 (f (x)) = x for every x in D

f (f −1 (x)) = x for every x in R

How to calculate Inverse Functions: There are three main steps to finding the inverse of
a function

Step 1: Write y = f (x)

 Calculus Notes 16

Step 2: Solve this equation for x in term of y (if possible).

Step 3: Express f −1 as a function of x, by interchanging x and y in the final equation of step

2. The resulting equation is then y = f −1 (x)

Example 1.0.22. To find the inverse of the function f (x) = x3 − 1,

Step 1: let y = x3 − 1

Step 2:
=⇒ y + 1 = x3
=⇒ (y + 1)( 1/3) = x
or p
3
x= y+1

Step 3: √
f −1 (x) = 3
x+1
x+1
Example 1.0.23. Let f (x) = x−1 , to find its inverse

x+1
y=
x−1
=⇒ (x − 1)y = x + 1
=⇒ xy − y = x + 1
=⇒ xy − x = y + 1
=⇒ (y − 1)x = y + 1
y+1
=⇒ x=
y−1
so, the inverse f −1 (x) = x+1
x−1

Graph of Inverse Function: The graph of f −1 can be obtained by reflecting the graph of f
about y = x line.
 17

(b, a)

(a, b)

Figure 1.16: Graph of f (x) = x3 − 1 and its inverse function

For example, the graph of f (x) = x3 − 1 and its inverse is given above
Algebraically, one should verify if

f (f −1 (x)) = x andf −1 (f (x)) = x

√
Note that for f (x) = x3 − 1 and its inverse f −1 (x) = 3 x + 1, we have the following
√ √
f ( 3 x + 1) = ( 3 x + 1)3 − 1 = x + 1 − 1 = x

and p
f −1 (x3 − 1) =
3
x3 − 1 + 1 = x

Logarithmic Functions
Logarithmic functions are inverse functions of exponential functions. Hence we define
logarithmic functions in the following way:

Let f (x) = bx be an exponential function than the logarithmic function corresponding to f

is g(x) = logb (x)

Recall from your high school when you first encountered such functions that there was a
property of logarithmic functions saying

logb (b) = 1

and
logb (am ) = m × logb (a)
Using the above two properties, we can easily see that

logb (bx ) = x

Also, we have the property blogb m = m. Using this we can get

blogb (x) = x
Calculus Notes 18

What we just did might seem a bit like cheating. We showed that exponential and log-
arithmic functions are inverses by using properties of logarithms, but those properties are
based on the assumption that logarithmic functions are inverses of exponential functions.
This means we used a circular argument to some extent.

The important point is that it’s not always possible to write a clear formula for the in-
verse of a given function. This is why in Step 2 for finding the inverse function, we used the
phrase ‘if possible’. For many functions, it’s easy to write an explicit inverse, but for others,
like exponential functions, it’s much harder. Instead of finding a simple formula, we use a
special notation to represent the inverse.

For example, instead of writing the inverse of f (x) = bx as f −1 (x), we use the notation
logb (x) to represent the inverse. This means that y = logb (x) is the inverse of y = bx . The
name logb helps us recognize that this function undoes the work of the exponential function
with base b.

Even if we can’t always find a neat formula for an inverse, we can still understand it
graphically. Given the graph of a one-to-one function, we can easily draw the graph of its
inverse by reflecting it across the line y = x. This graphical method gives us a clear way to
visualize the relationship between a function and its inverse.”

Figure 1.17: Graph of different exponential functions and their inverse functions

Inverse Trigonometric Functions

When a function is not one-to-one then in many cases, we can restrict its domain to a subset
where no two inputs produce the same output, ensuring the function becomes one-to-one
1.1. PROPERTIES OF FUNCTIONS 19

on that restricted domain. Note that for the sine function, every output in its range, [−1, 1],
can be obtained by restricting its domain to the interval [−π/2, π/2]. i.e.

sin : [−π/2, π/2] → [−1, 1]

We define the inverse function of the sine function as

sin−1 : [−1, 1] → [−π/2, π/2]

as sin−1 (x) = y such that sin(y) = x

1.5

1.0

0.5
sin(x)
sin-1 (x)
-1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 1.5
x
-0.5

-1.0

-1.5

Figure 1.18: Graph of sin(x) and sin−1 (x)

See figure(1.66) on page 49 of Thomas Calculus for the rest of the inverse trigonometric
functions.

1.1 Properties of Functions

1.1.1 Even and Odd Functions:
Definition 1.1.1. A function f is called an even function if for every x in the domain

f (−x) = f (x)

and it is called odd function if for every x

f (−x) = −f (x)

Example 1.1.2. The name even and odd comes from the power of x. Let

f1 (x) = x2

It is an even function as f( − x) = (−x)2 = x2 = f1 (x). And,

f2 (x) = x3

is an odd function.
Calculus Notes 20

Figure 1.19: Graph of y = x2 , Symmetric about y−axis

Note that if f is an even function then the points (x, f (x)) and (−x, f (x)) both are in the
graph of f . In other words, the graph of f has the same y−component for x and −x. i.e. It
is symmetric about y−axis.
On the other hand for an odd function, the points (x, f (x)) and (−x, −f (x)) both appear
on the graph, and hence the graph of an odd function is symmetric about the origin. By
rotating the point (x, f (x)) by an angle of 180◦ , we get the point (−x, −f (x)).

Figure 1.20: Graph of y = x3 , symmetric about origin

In general, a function is neither even nor odd, but any arbitrary function can be written
as the sum of an even and an odd function in the following way:

Given any arbitrary function f with domain of the type (−a, a) (also one can take closed
interval [−a, a]), where a can be infinity, note that the new functions

f (x) + f (−x)
2
1.1. PROPERTIES OF FUNCTIONS 21

and
f (x) − f (−x)
2
are even and odd respectively, and

f (x) + f (−x) f (x) − f (−x)

f (x) = +
2 2

1.1.2 Increasing and Decreasing Functions:

Definition 1.1.3. Let f be a function defined on an interval I and let x1 and x2 be any two
points in I
a. If f (x2 ) > f (x1 ) whenever x1 < x2 , then f is said to be increasing on I.

b. If f (x2 ) < f (x1 ) whenever x1 < x2 , then f is said to be decreasing on I.

Remark 1.1.4. We should always keep the following in mind:

1. The above definition must hold for every pair of points x1 and x2 in I with x1 < x2 .

2. We used the inequality < to compare the function values, instead of ≤, it is sometimes
said that f is strictly increasing or decreasing on I.
Example 1.1.5. Let f (x) = mx + c, then depending upon the slope positive or negative, f
is either increasing or decreasing on R.
Example 1.1.6. In general, given a function f , there can be multiple sub-intervals in the
domain, where f changes its behavior to increase and then decrease and increase again,
and so on until it reaches its end behavior. Let

f (x) = x2

For x1 and x2 in (−∞, 0), whenever x1 < x2 we have f (x1 ) > f (x2 ). So by definition
f (x) = x2 is decreasing on the interval (−∞, 0). If x1 and x2 are in (0, ∞), then whenever
x1 < x2 , we have f (x1 ) < f (x2 ). So it is increasing on (0, ∞).