Chapter 1: Computer System Overview

Introduction
A computer system is an electronic device that can store, retrieve, and process data to produce meaningful results. It
consists of hardware, software, users, and data.

Hardware and Software

Hardware: Physical components of the computer.
Example: Monitor, CPU, Keyboard, Mouse, Printer.
Software: Set of instructions that guide hardware to perform tasks.
Types of Software:
System Software – OS, Language Translators.
Application Software – MS Word, Web Browser.
Utility Software – Antivirus, Disk Cleanup.
Language Processors – Compiler, Interpreter, Assembler.

Computer Components & Basic Organisation

A computer system has the following functional units:
 Input Unit
 Central Processing Unit (CPU)
 Memory Unit
 Output Unit
This organization is often represented in a block diagram, showing the flow of data from input to processing to output.
Input Unit
Accepts data and instructions from the user.Converts input into machine-readable form.
Sends it to memory or CPU for processing.
Input Devices Examples:
Keyboard: Used to type text and commands.
Mouse: Pointing device used to interact with the screen.
Microphone: Captures audio input for recording or speech recognition.
Output Unit
Displays the result after processing.Converts machine-readable information to human-readable form.
Output Devices Examples:
Monitor: Displays visual output.
Printers: Produces hard copies of text/images.

Speakers: Outputs audio signals (music, voice, etc.).

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

Known as the brain of the computer.Carries out instructions of a computer program.
Composed of:
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): Performs all arithmetic and logical operations.
Control Unit (CU): Controls the flow of data and instructions, directs the operation of all components.
Primary Memory (Main Memory)
Temporary storage directly accessible by CPU. Stores data and instructions currently in use.
Types:
RAM (Random Access Memory): Volatile; data lost when power is off.
ROM (Read-Only Memory): Non-volatile; stores firmware.
Secondary Storage Unit
Permanent storage for large volumes of data.Slower than primary memory.
Examples:
Hard Disk Drive (HDD)
Solid State Drive (SSD)
Optical Disks (CD/DVD)
Pen Drives
Computer Organisation
Refers to the way different units of the computer are arranged and communicate.
Follows Input → Process → Output model.
Involves data flow between input devices, CPU, memory units, and output devices.
Central Processing Unit (CPU) –
What is CPU?
The CPU (Central Processing Unit) is the brain of the computer.
It performs all the processing tasks such as calculations, decision-making, and controlling other units. Also called the
processor or microprocessor.
Sub-components of CPU
CPU has three major components:
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
Performs all arithmetic operations:
Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication, Division.
Performs logical operations:
Comparisons (>, <, ==, etc.).
It processes data fetched from memory or input.
Control Unit (CU)
Directs and coordinates all operations inside the computer.

Fetches instructions from memory, decodes them, and sends signals to appropriate units (ALU, memory, I/O).
Does not perform actual processing, but acts like a traffic controller.
Registers
Small, high-speed storage locations within the CPU. Temporarily store data, instructions, addresses.Faster than RAM
and used to hold intermediate results.
Types of Registers:
Accumulator: Stores results from ALU.
Program Counter (PC): Holds the address of the next instruction.
Instruction Register (IR): Stores the current instruction.
Memory Address Register (MAR): Stores the address to access in memory.
Memory Data Register (MDR): Stores the data fetched from or to be written to memory.
CPU Functions
Fetch: Retrieves instructions from memory.
Decode: Interprets what the instruction means.
Execute: Carries out the instruction using ALU.
Store: Writes the result back to memory or a register.
Example Analogy
Think of CPU like a chef:
CU is the chef’s brain, managing steps.
ALU is the hands doing cutting/mixing (processing).
Registers are like bowls holding ingredients temporarily.
What is Primary Memory? Also called Main Memory.
It is the internal memory of the computer, directly accessible by the CPU. Stores data and instructions currently in
use. It is faster but usually smaller than secondary memory.
Two major types: RAM and ROM.
RAM (Random Access Memory)
Volatile memory (data is lost when power is off).
Allows read and write operations. Temporarily stores programs and data the CPU is currently using.
Types of RAM:
a) SRAM (Static RAM): Stores data using flip-flops.Faster, more expensive, no need to refresh.
Used for cache memory.
b) DRAM (Dynamic RAM)
Stores data using capacitors.Slower, cheaper, needs frequent refreshing.
Used for main system memory (normal RAM modules).

ROM (Read-Only Memory)

Non-volatile memory (data remains even when power is off).Stores permanent data/instructions, usually from the
manufacturer. Only readable, or programmable in special ways.
Types of ROM:
a) PROM (Programmable ROM): Can be programmed once by the user using a special device. Cannot be erased or
reprogrammed.
b) EPROM (Erasable Programmable ROM)
Can be erased by ultraviolet (UV) light and reprogrammed.
c) EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM)
Can be electrically erased and reprogrammed.Slower but can be modified without removing the chip.Used in BIOS.
d) Flash Memory
A faster, improved EEPROM.Allows multiple memory locations to be written or erased in blocks.Common in pen
drives, SSDs, memory cards.
e) Mask ROMProgrammed during manufacturing.Cannot be changed afterward.
Cheapest in large-scale production, used in embedded systems.

Memory Type Volatility Reprogrammable Common Use

SRAM Volatile Yes (RAM) Cache
DRAM Volatile Yes (RAM) Main Memory
ROM Non-Volatile No Firmware
PROM Non-Volatile No (after write) One-time programmable
EPROM Non-Volatile Yes (UV light) Not common now
EEPROM Non-Volatile Yes (Electric) BIOS, microcontrollers
Flash Memory Non-Volatile Yes (Block-wise) SSDs, USB drives
Mask ROM Non-Volatile No Embedded systems

What is a Storage Unit?

The storage unit stores data, instructions, and results permanently or temporarily.
It retains data even when the computer is turned off (non-volatile).
Classified into:
Primary Storage: RAM, ROM (fast, temporary)
Secondary Storage: Hard Disk, CD, DVD (permanent)
Tertiary/Backup Storage: External drives, tapes
Hard Disk Drive (HDD)
Magnetic storage device used for permanent data storage.Data stored on rotating platters coated with magnetic
material.High storage capacity (up to several TBs).Used in desktops, laptops, and servers.

Features:Non-volatile.Reliable for long-term storage.Slower than SSDs but cheaper per GB

Compact Disc (CD)
Optical storage medium made of plastic and coated with reflective metal.Stores data in the form of tiny pits and
lands.Capacity: up to 700 MB
Types of CDs:
a) CD-ROM (Compact Disc Read-Only Memory).Pre-recorded, data written at manufacturing.Cannot be erased or
modified.Used for software distribution, music albums.
b) CD-R (CD-Recordable)
Can be written only once using a CD writer.After writing, data is permanently stored.
c) CD-RW (CD-Rewritable)
Can be written, erased, and rewritten multiple times.Useful for backup and testing purposes.
DVD (Digital Versatile Disc or Digital Video Disc)
Advanced optical disc with higher capacity than CDs.Capacity: 4.7 GB (single layer), up to 8.5 GB (dual
layer)Commonly used for:Storing videos, software, and large files.Backup and media distribution.
DVD Types:
 DVD-ROM: Read-only (pre-written)
 DVD-R / DVD+R: Writable once
 DVD-RW / DVD+RW: Rewritable multiple times

What is a System Bus?

A system bus is a communication pathway that transfers data between various components of a computer (CPU,
memory, input/output devices).A bus is a collection of wires or lines used for data transmission.
Types of System Buses:
1. Data Bus Carries actual data between the CPU, memory, and other devices.
Bi-directional: Data can flow both to and from the CPU.Width of the data bus (e.g., 8-bit, 16-bit, 32-bit, 64-bit)
determines how much data can be transferred at once.
Example: In a 32-bit system, the data bus can carry 32 bits at a time.
2. Address Bus Carries the memory addresses from CPU to memory or I/O devices.
Uni-directional: Only flows from CPU to other components.Width determines how many memory locations can be
accessed.
Example: A 16-bit address bus can access 2¹⁶ = 65,536 memory locations.
3. Control Bus Carries control signals used to manage and coordinate all the activities. Signals include: Read/Write
operations, Clock signals, Interrupts
Can be uni-directional or bi-directional depending on the signal type.

4. I/O Bus (Input/Output Bus)

Specifically used to connect the CPU to I/O devices (keyboard, mouse, printer, etc.).
Transfers data, control, and status signals between CPU and peripherals.
Sometimes a part of the system bus or implemented as a separate bus in modern systems.
What is Software?
Software is a set of instructions or programs that tell a computer what to do. It makes the hardware functional and
usable.
Software is broadly classified into two categories:
1. System Software
System Software is designed to manage the system resources and provides a platform to run application software.
a) Operating System (OS)
Interface between the user and the hardware.Manages all hardware and software resources.
Functions:
 Process management
 Memory management
 File system handling
 Device control
 User interface
Examples: Windows, Linux, macOS, Android
b) Language Processors Convert high-level or assembly language into machine language.
Types:
Assembler: Converts Assembly Language to Machine Language.
Compiler: Converts entire High-Level Language (HLL) program to machine code at once.
Interpreter: Translates HLL line-by-line into machine code.
Examples: GCC (C Compiler), Python Interpreter
c) Utility Software
Performs maintenance tasks like antivirus, disk cleanup, compression, etc. Improves system performance and ensures
security. Examples: WinZip, Disk Defragmenter, Antivirus
2. Application Software
Application Software is designed to help users perform specific tasks or solve real-world problems.
a) General Purpose Software (Packages):Can be used by many users for common tasks.
Examples:
MS Word (Word Processing)
MS Excel (Spreadsheet)
MS PowerPoint (Presentation)

Browsers, Media Players

b) Customized Software
Developed for specific users or organizations as per their requirements.
Example: Library Management System in a school
c) Business Software
Tailored for commercial and enterprise use.
Helps in managing accounts, inventory, billing, payroll, etc.
Examples:
Tally (Accounting),SAP (ERP),Oracle Apps
d) Software Library
A collection of pre-written code or functions that developers can use in their own programs.Saves time and avoids
rewriting common functionality.
Examples:
Python Standard Library,Java Libraries (e.g., java.util),DLL files in Windows
Business Software:For managing commercial/business activities
Examples:Tally, SAP
Software Library:Reusable functions/code for developers.
Python Libraries, DLLs