Unit 1

1. Define Computer Networks and Distributed Systems. How do

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they differ from each other?
Answer:
A Computer Network is a system of interconnected devices that communicate
with each other using networking hardware and protocols. These devices
exchange data and resources such as files, applications, and internet access.
Networks can range from small-scale local networks (LANs) to large-scale
global networks (WANs).
A Distributed System consists of multiple independent computers that work
together to achieve a common goal. These computers appear to users as a
single system, even though they are physically separated and communicate
over a network.
Differences between Computer Networks and Distributed Systems:
Feature Computer Network Distributed System
Definition A collection of A group of computers
interconnected working as a single
devices system
Independence Devices operate Nodes coordinate and
independently share processing
tasks
Resource Sharing Focused on data Focused on task
sharing execution and
resource allocation
Transparency Users see separate Users see a single
devices system
Examples The Internet, LANs, Google Cloud,
WANs Blockchain, Cluster
Computing
Computer networks serve as the foundation for distributed systems, as
distributed computing requires network communication.

2. Classify Computer Networks based on their geographical

spread and functionality.
Answer:
Computer networks can be classified based on geographical spread and
functionality.
A. Classification Based on Geographical Spread:
. Local Area Network (LAN)
○ Covers a small area such as a home, office, or campus.
○ High data transfer rates (typically up to 1 Gbps or more).
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○ Uses Ethernet cables or Wi-Fi.
○ Example: Office LANs, Campus Networks.

. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

○ Covers a city or metropolitan area (up to 50 km).
○ Uses fiber-optic or wireless links.
○ Example: Cable TV networks, city-wide Wi-Fi.

. Wide Area Network (WAN)

○ Covers large geographical areas such as countries or continents.
○ Uses leased telecommunication lines, satellites, or fiber optics.
○ Example: The Internet, Corporate WANs.

. Personal Area Network (PAN)

○ Covers a very small range (within a few meters).
○ Used for connecting personal devices like smartphones, laptops,

and smartwatches.
○ Example: Bluetooth, NFC.

B. Classification Based on Functionality:

. Client-Server Network
○ Centralized system where clients request services from a

dedicated server.
○ Example: Banking networks, company file servers.

. Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Network

○ Each node acts as both a client and a server.
○ Example: BitTorrent, Blockchain networks.

. Hybrid Network
○ Combines client-server and P2P models.
○ Example: Skype, Cloud Computing.

3. Explain the concept of layered network structures and the

need for a layered approach in networking.
Answer:
A layered network structure organizes the network communication process
into distinct layers, each responsible for specific tasks. This modular approach
simplifies the design, implementation, and troubleshooting of networks.
Need for Layered Approach:
. Modularity – Breaking down complex communication into manageable
layers simplifies development.
. Interoperability – Different vendors can develop hardware and
software that work together.
. Scalability – Networks can grow and adapt without redesigning the
entire system.
. Standardization – Promotes universal communication protocols.
. Efficient Troubleshooting – Issues can be isolated to specific layers
for debugging.
Common Layered Models:
. OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Model:
 ○ Has 7 layers: Physical, Data Link, Network, Transport, Session,
Presentation, and Application.
○ Provides a theoretical framework for networking.

. TCP/IP Model:
○ Has 4 layers: Network Access, Internet, Transport, and

Application.
○ Practical model used for real-world internet communication.

Each layer in these models communicates with its corresponding layer on

another device while remaining independent from other layers.

4. Compare and contrast the OSI and TCP/IP layered models.

Answer:
Feature OSI Model TCP/IP Model
Number of Layers 7 4
Developed By ISO (International DARPA (Defense
Organization for Advanced Research
Standardization) Projects Agency)
Main Purpose Standardized Practical
theoretical model implementation for
Internet
Layers Physical, Data Link, Network Access,
Network, Transport, Internet, Transport,
Session, Presentation, Application
Application
Reliability Includes separate Relies on end-to-end
session and control mechanisms
presentation layers for
enhanced reliability
Examples of Ethernet, PPP, HTTP, IP, TCP, UDP, HTTP
Protocols FTP
Widely Used In Academics and Real-world Internet
research and networking
The TCP/IP model is more practical and widely adopted, whereas the OSI model
serves as a reference framework.

5. Explain the key elements of a protocol and how protocols

facilitate network communication.
Answer:
A protocol is a set of rules governing how data is transmitted over a network.
Protocols define message formats, timing, sequencing, and error handling to
ensure seamless communication.
Key Elements of a Protocol:
. Syntax: Defines the structure of the message, such as data format
 .
and signal levels.
. Semantics: Specifies the meaning of each message type, including
control information.
. Timing: Ensures proper sequencing and speed matching between
sender and receiver.
How Protocols Facilitate Communication:
. Encapsulation: Data is packaged in a structured format (e.g., adding
headers and footers).
. Error Handling: Protocols like TCP use checksums to detect and
correct transmission errors.
. Addressing and Routing: IP addresses and routing protocols help
direct data to the correct destination.
. Synchronization: Ensures both sender and receiver operate at the
same pace.
. Flow Control: Prevents overwhelming the receiver with too much data
at once.
Examples of Networking Protocols:
. HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) – Used for web communication.
. TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) – Ensures reliable data
transfer.
. UDP (User Datagram Protocol) – Provides fast but unreliable data
transmission.
. IP (Internet Protocol) – Handles addressing and packet forwarding.
Protocols act as the backbone of networking by standardizing communication
across different devices and platforms.

1. Explain the key components of Data Communication and the

flow of data in a network.
Answer:
Data communication refers to the process of transferring data between devices
through a communication medium. The main components of a data
communication system are:
. Sender (Source): The device that generates and sends data (e.g.,
computer, sensor).
. Transmitter: Converts data into a form suitable for transmission (e.g.,
modem).
. Transmission Medium: The physical channel that carries the data
(e.g., cables, wireless signals).
. Receiver: Converts received signals back into data.
. Destination: The device that receives and processes the data.
Data Flow in a Network:
Data can flow in different ways in a network:
. Simplex: Data flows in only one direction (e.g., television
broadcasting).
. Half-Duplex: Data flows in both directions, but only one device can
 .
send at a time (e.g., walkie-talkies).
. Full-Duplex: Data flows in both directions simultaneously (e.g.,
telephone communication).
Efficient data communication requires synchronization, error handling, and flow
control mechanisms.

2. Describe different network topologies with their advantages

and disadvantages.
Answer:
A network topology defines the physical or logical arrangement of network
devices. The main types of network topologies are:
. Bus Topology:
○ Structure: All devices are connected to a single communication

line (bus).
○ Advantages: Cost-effective, easy to implement.
○ Disadvantages: A single failure in the bus affects the entire

network, limited scalability.

. Star Topology:
○ Structure: All devices connect to a central hub or switch.
○ Advantages: High performance, easy fault detection.
○ Disadvantages: If the central hub fails, the entire network goes

down.
. Ring Topology:
○ Structure: Devices are connected in a circular pattern.
○ Advantages: Data flows in a specific direction, reducing collisions.
○ Disadvantages: Failure of one device can disrupt the network

unless dual rings are used.

. Mesh Topology:
○ Structure: Each device has a dedicated connection to every other

device.
○ Advantages: Highly reliable, fault-tolerant.
○ Disadvantages: Expensive and complex to implement.

. Hybrid Topology:
○ Structure: Combination of two or more topologies.
○ Advantages: Flexible and scalable.
○ Disadvantages: Can be costly and difficult to manage.

Choosing the right topology depends on network size, reliability requirements,

and cost considerations.

3. Define Protocols and Standards in networking. Why are they

important?
Answer:
A protocol is a set of rules that define how data is transmitted over a network.
Examples include HTTP, TCP/IP, and FTP.
A standard is a set of guidelines developed by organizations to ensure
compatibility between devices from different manufacturers. Examples include
IEEE, ISO, and ITU-T.
Importance of Protocols and Standards:
. Interoperability: Ensures different devices and networks can
communicate.
. Efficiency: Optimizes data transfer methods for better performance.
. Security: Defines encryption and authentication mechanisms.
. Error Handling: Provides techniques for detecting and correcting
errors.
. Scalability: Supports future growth and expansion of networks.
By following established protocols and standards, global communication
networks like the Internet function seamlessly.

4. Explain the OSI Model and the functions of each layer.

Answer:
The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Model is a seven-layer conceptual
framework that standardizes network communication.
Layer Function
1. Physical Layer Handles the transmission of raw
bits over the communication
medium (e.g., cables, signals).
2. Data Link Layer Provides error detection and
correction, frames data for
transmission.
3. Network Layer Manages logical addressing (IP
addresses) and routing of data
between networks.
4. Transport Layer Ensures reliable data transfer using
protocols like TCP and UDP.
5. Session Layer Manages session establishment
and termination between
applications.
6. Presentation Layer Ensures data format compatibility,
encryption, and compression.
7. Application Layer Provides user interface and
network services like email, web
browsing.
The OSI model helps in designing networks systematically and troubleshooting
communication problems effectively.

5. Discuss different types of Transmission Media used in

networking.
Answer:
Transmission media is the physical path through which data is transmitted. It is
classified into Guided (Wired) and Unguided (Wireless) media.
A. Guided Transmission Media:
. Twisted Pair Cable:
○ Two insulated copper wires twisted together to reduce

interference.
○ Types: Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) and Shielded Twisted Pair

(STP).
○ Used in: Telephone networks, LANs.

. Coaxial Cable:
○ Central conductor surrounded by insulation and a shielding layer.
○ Advantages: Better shielding from interference, higher bandwidth.
○ Used in: Cable TV, broadband.

. Fiber Optic Cable:

○ Uses light signals to transmit data through glass or plastic fibers.
○ Advantages: High speed, long-distance transmission, immune to

EMI.
○ Used in: High-speed internet, long-distance communication.

B. Unguided Transmission Media:

. Radio Waves:
○ Used in Wi-Fi, AM/FM radio, Bluetooth.
○ Can be omnidirectional or directional.

. Microwaves:
○ Requires line-of-sight communication, used in satellite and mobile

networks.
○ High bandwidth but affected by obstacles.

. Infrared (IR):
○ Short-range communication, used in remote controls and sensor

devices.
○ Cannot pass through obstacles.

. Light Transmission (Lasers):

○ Uses focused light beams for data transmission.
○ Used in free-space optics, requires precise alignment.

Each transmission medium has specific advantages and is selected based on

factors like speed, cost, and distance requirements.

1. Define LAN (Local Area Network). Explain its characteristics

and advantages.
Answer:
A Local Area Network (LAN) is a network that connects computers and
devices within a limited geographical area such as a home, office, school, or
campus. LANs are used for resource sharing, data communication, and
collaboration.
Characteristics of LAN:
. Limited Geographic Range: Covers small areas like a building or
campus.
 . High Data Transfer Speed: Typically operates at speeds ranging from
10 Mbps to 10 Gbps.
. Low Latency: Due to close proximity of devices, communication is
fast.
. Resource Sharing: Users can share files, printers, and internet
connections.
. Private Ownership: Usually managed by a single organization.
. Wired or Wireless: LANs can use Ethernet cables or wireless (Wi-Fi)
connections.
Advantages of LAN:
. Fast Communication: High-speed data transfer enables efficient
operations.
. Cost-effective: Uses inexpensive networking hardware like Ethernet
cables and switches.
. Centralized Data Management: Data can be stored and managed on
a central server.
. Enhanced Security: Since LANs are private, security can be
controlled internally.
. Internet Sharing: Multiple users can share a single internet
connection.
LANs serve as the foundation for modern network infrastructures, providing
reliable and high-speed communication.

2. Explain Wired LAN and its components. Compare advantages

and disadvantages.
Answer:
A Wired LAN is a network where devices are physically connected using cables
such as Ethernet. It provides reliable, high-speed communication.
Components of Wired LAN:
. Computers and Devices: Workstations, servers, and printers that
communicate over the network.
. Network Interface Card (NIC): Hardware that connects a device to
the network.
. Ethernet Cables: Commonly used cables such as Cat5, Cat6, or
Fiber Optic.
. Switches and Hubs: Switches manage data traffic, while hubs
broadcast data to all devices.
. Router: Connects LAN to external networks like the internet.
. Firewall: Provides security by filtering incoming and outgoing traffic.
Advantages of Wired LAN:
. Higher Speed: Supports speeds up to 10 Gbps with minimal
interference.
. More Secure: Physical access is required to connect, reducing
hacking risks.
. Stable Connection: Less affected by interference compared to
 .
wireless networks.
. Supports More Devices: Can handle high traffic loads efficiently.
Disadvantages of Wired LAN:
. Limited Mobility: Devices must be connected via cables, reducing
flexibility.
. Higher Installation Cost: Requires cables, switches, and structured
wiring.
. Complex Setup: Requires professional installation and maintenance.
Wired LANs are preferred in environments where speed, reliability, and security
are crucial, such as corporate offices and data centers.

3. What is Wireless LAN (WLAN)? Explain its working, benefits,

and limitations.
Answer:
A Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN) allows devices to connect and
communicate over a network without physical cables. It uses Wi-Fi technology
to provide internet and network access.
How WLAN Works:
. Devices use Wi-Fi adapters to communicate wirelessly.
. An Access Point (AP) connects wireless devices and manages traffic.
. The AP is connected to a router or switch, linking the WLAN to wired
networks.
. Data is transmitted using radio waves (2.4 GHz or 5 GHz frequency
bands).
Advantages of WLAN:
. Mobility: Users can move freely within the coverage area.
. Easy Installation: No physical cables needed, reducing complexity.
. Scalability: New devices can be added easily.
. Cost-Effective: Eliminates the cost of Ethernet cabling.
Disadvantages of WLAN:
. Lower Speed: Slower than wired LANs due to interference.
. Security Risks: Susceptible to hacking and unauthorized access.
. Limited Range: Wi-Fi coverage is affected by walls and obstacles.
. Interference Issues: Devices like microwaves and Bluetooth can
disrupt signals.
WLANs are widely used in homes, offices, airports, and cafes, providing
flexible and convenient network access.

4. Define Virtual LAN (VLAN). Explain its purpose, advantages,

and implementation.
Answer:
A Virtual LAN (VLAN) is a logical segmentation of a physical network into
multiple isolated networks. It allows devices in different locations to
communicate as if they were on the same LAN, improving security and
efficiency.
Purpose of VLAN:
● VLANs are used to separate network traffic for security and
performance optimization.
● They help organizations create multiple logical networks without
requiring additional hardware.
Advantages of VLAN:
. Improved Security: Prevents unauthorized access by isolating
network segments.
. Better Performance: Reduces network congestion by dividing traffic
logically.
. Flexibility: Devices can be grouped logically rather than physically.
. Simplified Network Management: Allows easy configuration and
changes.
Implementation of VLAN:
● VLANs are configured using managed switches and routers.
● Devices are assigned to VLANs based on port number, MAC address,
or protocol.
● VLAN tags are added to packets for identification.
VLANs are commonly used in enterprise networks, data centers, and
educational institutions to enhance network management and security.

5. Compare Wired LAN, Wireless LAN, and Virtual LAN in terms of

performance, security, cost, and flexibility.
Answer:
Feature Wired LAN Wireless LAN Virtual LAN
(WLAN) (VLAN)
Performance High speed (up Slower than Same as wired/
to 10 Gbps) wired LAN (max wireless but
1-2 Gbps) optimized by
segmentation
Security High (physical Moderate Very high
access (wireless signals (logical
required) can be segmentation
intercepted) isolates data)
Cost Expensive Less expensive Cost-effective
(cables, (no cabling (uses existing
switches) needed) hardware)
Flexibility Low (fixed High (users can Very High
connections) move freely) (logical
grouping of
devices)
Installation High (structured Easy (just Medium
Complexity cabling configure (requires
required) wireless APs) managed
switches)
Scalability Requires Easily Highly scalable
 Complexity cabling configure (requires
required) wireless APs) managed
switches)
Scalability Requires Easily Highly scalable
additional expandable with without
cables new APs hardware
changes
Use Case Offices, Data Homes, Public Enterprise
Centers Wi-Fi, Mobile Networks, Large
Devices Corporations
Each LAN type has specific use cases:
● Wired LANs for performance and security.
● Wireless LANs for flexibility and mobility.
● VLANs for network segmentation and security.

1. Explain the concept of Bandwidth Utilization and the need for

Multiplexing in communication networks.
Answer:
Bandwidth Utilization refers to the efficient use of the available
communication channel to maximize data transmission while minimizing
wastage of resources. As multiple users need to share the same communication
medium, Multiplexing is used to optimize bandwidth.
Need for Multiplexing:
. Efficient Resource Utilization: Prevents underutilization of
communication channels.
. Cost Reduction: Reduces the need for additional physical
infrastructure.
. Increased Capacity: Allows multiple signals to be transmitted
simultaneously.
. Scalability: Supports more users without requiring separate channels
for each.
Types of Multiplexing:
● Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) – Divides bandwidth into
multiple frequency bands.
● Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) – Allocates time slots to multiple
signals.
● Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) – Used in optical networks
for transmitting different wavelengths.
Multiplexing is crucial for modern networks, enabling efficient data
transmission in telecommunication, internet services, and broadcasting.

2. What is Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)? Explain its

working with advantages and disadvantages.
Answer:
Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) is a technique that divides the total
available bandwidth into multiple frequency channels, each assigned to a
different signal.
How FDM Works:
 . The available bandwidth is divided into multiple frequency bands
(channels).
. Each signal is modulated onto a separate carrier frequency.
. Guard bands are used to prevent overlap and interference between
adjacent frequencies.
. The multiplexed signal is transmitted and separated at the receiver
using bandpass filters.
Advantages of FDM:
. Simultaneous Transmission: Multiple signals can be transmitted at
the same time.
. Low Latency: Continuous transmission avoids delays.
. Efficient for Analog Signals: Used in FM radio, TV broadcasting, and
telephony.
Disadvantages of FDM:
. Bandwidth Wastage: Guard bands reduce efficiency.
. Interference Issues: Adjacent channels may experience cross-talk.
. Hardware Complexity: Requires filters and modulators for each
channel.
FDM is widely used in radio broadcasting, cable TV, and satellite
communication.

3. Define Time Division Multiplexing (TDM). Differentiate

between Synchronous and Statistical TDM.
Answer:
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) is a technique where multiple signals share
the same communication channel by dividing time into discrete slots.
Types of TDM:
. Synchronous TDM:
○ Each signal is assigned a fixed time slot in a repeating cycle.
○ Slots are allocated whether the user has data to transmit or not.
○ Example: Traditional telephone networks (T1, E1 systems).

. Statistical (Asynchronous) TDM:

○ Time slots are dynamically allocated based on demand.
○ More efficient as unused slots are reassigned to active users.
○ Example: Modern packet-switched networks like DSL and VoIP.

Comparison between Synchronous and Statistical TDM:

Feature Synchronous TDM Statistical TDM
Time Slot Allocation Fixed Dynamic
Efficiency Less efficient More efficient
Data Transmission Even when no data is Only when data is
present present
Complexity Simple to implement Requires buffering and
processing
Example T1, E1 lines DSL, VoIP
TDM is extensively used in digital telephony, data transmission, and cellular
networks.

4. Explain Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) and its role in

Optical Fiber Communication.
Answer:
Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) is a multiplexing technique used in
optical fiber communication, where multiple light signals of different
wavelengths are transmitted simultaneously over a single fiber.
Working of WDM:
. Different laser beams with unique wavelengths are combined using a
multiplexer.
. The combined signal is transmitted through a single optical fiber.
. At the receiving end, a demultiplexer separates the wavelengths back
into individual signals.
Types of WDM:
. Coarse Wavelength Division Multiplexing (CWDM): Uses fewer
channels with a wider spacing (e.g., 20 nm spacing).
. Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing (DWDM): Uses tightly
packed wavelengths (0.8 nm spacing), allowing more channels.
Advantages of WDM:
. Increased Data Capacity: Supports 100+ Gbps data rates.
. Efficient Use of Optical Fiber: Multiple signals travel through a single
fiber, reducing infrastructure costs.
. Long-Distance Communication: Low signal loss enables long-range
data transmission.
. Scalability: Easily expandable by adding more wavelengths.
Applications of WDM:
● High-speed Internet backbone networks.
● Submarine fiber-optic cables connecting continents.
● Data centers and cloud computing services.
WDM has revolutionized modern high-speed networks, providing the
backbone for the global internet infrastructure.

5. What is Spread Spectrum? Explain the different types of

spread spectrum techniques.
Answer:
Spread Spectrum is a wireless communication technique that spreads the
signal across a wider frequency band than necessary. This improves security,
reduces interference, and enhances signal robustness.
Types of Spread Spectrum:
. Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS):
○ The signal rapidly switches between different frequencies

within a band.
○ The hopping sequence is known only to sender and receiver.
 ○ Advantages: Resistant to interference and jamming.
○ Example: Bluetooth, military communication.

. Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS):

○ Data is spread across a wide frequency range using a spreading

code (chip sequence).

○ The receiver uses the same code to reconstruct the original signal.
○ Advantages: High resistance to noise and eavesdropping.
○ Example: Wi-Fi (802.11b), GPS.

. Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM):

○ Data is transmitted over multiple narrowband subcarriers.
○ Reduces interference and multipath fading.
○ Example: 4G LTE, Wi-Fi (802.11a/g/n/ac).

Advantages of Spread Spectrum:

. Improved Security: Harder to intercept or jam signals.
. Resistance to Interference: Reduces effects of noise and other
signals.
. Multiple Access Capability: Allows multiple users to share the same
frequency band (CDMA).
Applications of Spread Spectrum:
● Wireless networks (Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, 4G, 5G).
● Military communication (anti-jamming and secure transmission).
● GPS systems (precise positioning).
Spread Spectrum is a vital technology for secure and reliable wireless
communication in modern networks.

Summary of Key Concepts:

Technique Purpose Example
Applications
FDM Divides bandwidth into Radio, TV
frequency channels broadcasting
TDM Divides time into slots Digital telephony (T1,
for multiple signals E1)
WDM Uses different Fiber-optic
wavelengths for communication
optical signals
Spread Spectrum Spreads signal to Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, GPS
(FHSS, DSSS, OFDM) enhance security and
reduce interference
These techniques are essential for efficient bandwidth utilization, ensuring
high-speed, secure, and interference-free communication.