K.S.

RANGASAMY COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY, TIRUCHENGODE – 637 215

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
61 CS 501 – DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
Two Mark Question and Answers

UNIT-I(Introduction and Conceptual Modeling)

1. State DBMS.
A DBMS (Database Management System) is software used to create, manage, and manipulate
databases. It provides users and applications with a way to store, retrieve, and modify data while
ensuring data integrity and security.
2. List the key objectives of a DBMS.
The key objectives of a DBMS include ensuring data integrity, supporting data security, managing
data redundancy, providing data consistency, and allowing concurrent data access for multiple
users.
3 List various applications of DBMS.
DBMS applications are software programs that use a DBMS to store and manage data. Examples
include banking systems, online reservation systems, customer relationship management
systems, and inventory management systems.
4. Explain the concept of data independence.
Data independence refers to the ability to change the schema of a database at one level without
affecting the schema at the next higher level. There are two types: logical data independence
(changes in logical schema) and physical data independence (changes in physical storage).
5. What is the importance of views in DBMS?
Views in DBMS allow users to access and query data in a customized way. They can be used to
simplify complex queries, provide security by restricting data access, and present data without
exposing the underlying schema.
6. Differentiate between internal, conceptual, and external views in DBMS?
 Internal View: Describes the physical storage of data.
 Conceptual View: Describes the logical structure of the entire database.
 External View: Describes how individual users or user groups see the data

7. State the purpose of database system architecture.

Database system architecture defines the structure of the database system and the relationship
between its components, including storage, data models, and user interfaces, ensuring efficient
and secure management of data.
8. List the levels of DBMS architecture.
DBMS architecture typically includes three levels:

1. Internal Level (Physical storage): Describes how data is physically stored.

2. Conceptual Level (Logical view): Describes what data is stored and the
relationships between data.
3. External Level (User view): Describes how data is viewed by individual users or
 applications.

9. State the purpose of database administrator (DBA).

A Database Administrator (DBA) is responsible for managing and maintaining the database
system, ensuring its security, integrity, performance, and availability, as well as performing
database backups, recovery, and optimization tasks.
10 State the purpose of data model in DBMS.
.
A data model is an abstract model that organizes and defines the structure, relationships, and
constraints of data in a database. Common data models include the Entity-Relationship (ER)
model and the Relational model.
11 State the use of ER model.
.
The Entity-Relationship (ER) model is a conceptual framework used to represent the structure of
a database. It defines entities (objects) and relationships between them, with entities having
attributes that describe their properties.
12 List the main components of an ER diagram.
.
The main components of an ER diagram are:

 Entities: Objects or things in the system (represented by rectangles).

 Attributes: Properties or characteristics of entities (represented by ellipses).
 Relationships: Connections between entities (represented by diamonds).

13 Explain the concept of cardinality in the ER model.

.
Cardinality refers to the number of instances of one entity that can or must be associated with
instances of another entity in a relationship. Types of cardinality include one-to-one, one-to-
many, and many-to-many.
14 State the use of Relational Model.
.
The Relational Model is a way of representing data using tables (relations), where each table
consists of rows (tuples) and columns (attributes). The model uses keys to establish relationships
between tables and supports SQL for querying data.
15 State the use of primary key in the relational model
.
A primary key is an attribute or a set of attributes that uniquely identifies each record (row) in a
table. No two rows can have the same primary key value.
16 State the use of foreign key.
.
A foreign key is an attribute in one table that refers to the primary key in another table,
establishing a relationship between the two tables.
17 Explain relational algebra.
.
Relational Algebra is a procedural query language used to retrieve and manipulate data in
relational databases. It includes operations such as selection (σ), projection (π), union (∪),
 difference (−), and join (⨝).
18 Recall the use of selection operation in relational algebra.
.
The selection operation (σ) in relational algebra is used to retrieve rows (tuples) from a
relation that satisfy a specific condition or predicate.
19 Statethe use of projection operation in relational algebra.
.
The projection operation (π) is used to retrieve specific columns (attributes) from a
relation, essentially reducing the number of attributes in the result.
20 Differentiate between relational algebra and relational calculus
.
Relational algebra is a procedural query language that specifies how to retrieve data using
a set of operations, while relational calculus is a non-procedural query language that
describes what data to retrieve without specifying how to do it.
21 State the role of a tuple in the relational model.
.
A tuple in the relational model represents a single row or record in a table, consisting of a
set of attribute values. Each tuple corresponds to an instance of the entity described by the
table.
22 State the use of attribute in the relational model.
.
An attribute in the relational model represents a column in a table and describes a property
of an entity. Each attribute has a data type, such as integer, string, or date.
23 State the purpose of normalization in DBMS.
.
Normalization is the process of organizing data in a database to eliminate redundancy and
dependency by dividing a large table into smaller tables and defining relationships
between them. This improves data integrity and reduces anomalies.
24 List different types of keys in a relational database.
.
Types of keys in a relational database include:

 Primary Key: Uniquely identifies each record in a table.

 Foreign Key: Links one table to another.
 Candidate Key: A set of attributes that could uniquely identify records, but is not
necessarily the primary key.
 Composite Key: A key that consists of two or more attributes.

25 State the use join operation in relational algebra.

.
A join operation (⨝) combines two relations based on a common attribute. It merges rows from
both relations where the values in the common attribute match.
26 Differentiate between the SELECT and PROJECT operations in relational algebra.
.
SELECT (σ): Filters rows based on a condition.
 PROJECT (π): Selects specific columns from a table.
27 Outline the significance of the UNION operation in relational algebra.
.
The UNION operation (∪) combines the results of two queries into a single set of results,
removing duplicates. It returns all rows that appear in either of the two relations.
29 List the different types of database users.
.
1.Application users
2.Sophodticated users
3.Specialised users
4.Navie users.
30 State the purpose storage manager.
.
A storage manager is a program module that provides the interface between the low
level data stored in the database &the application programs and queries submitted to the
system.
31 State the purpose transaction manager.
.
Which ensures that the database remains in a consistent(correct)state despite system
failures, and that concurrent transaction executions proceed without conflicting.
32 Define two-tier architecture.
.
The application is partitioned into a component that resides at the client machine which
invokes the data base system functionality at the server machine through query language
statements.

UNIT-II(Relational Model)
1. State the use SQL
SQL have been partially or fully implemented are available on commercial DBMS. SQL is a
comprehensive database language, it has statement for data definition query of update
And it has facilities for defining views on the database for creating and dropping indexes
on the files.
2. State the use of create table, schema?
A schema is created via the create schema statement, Which can include all the schema
elements de function.
Create table EMP( Name Char(10), No number (5));
3 State the use of Delete table schema.
A delete request is 4expressed is much the same way as a query. We can delete only
whole types we can not delete values on only particulars attributes
Delete from emp where no=5.
4. State the ways to update the values in a table.
In certain conditions, we may wish to change a value is a tuple with out changing all
 values in the tuple for this purpose update it is used
Eg: Update account set bad = bal t* 0.5
5. List the built in domains available in SQL.
1. Char(n) 2. Varchar(n) 3. Int 4. Small int,
5. Numeric(p,d) 6. Neat double precision 7. Float
8. Date 9. Time.
6. State the ways to remove a relations from a SQL relation.
We use drop table command to delete all information about the dropped relation from
the database

7. State the use of cursor.

A language in which SQL queries are embedded is referred as host language and the SQL
structure permitted in the host language constitute embedded SQL.
8. State are the two types of calculus.
1. Tuple relational calculus.
2. Domain relational calculus
9. Explain nested queries.
Some queries require that existing values in the database be fetched then used in a
comparison condition such queries can be conveniently formulated by using nested
queries, which are complete SELECT queries with in the WHERE clause of another query
the another query is called the outer query.
Select distinct pnum from project
Where Pnum is (select pnum from project dept emp wher Pnum = Dnumbers AND
mg=ssn0);
10 Explain with examples NULL statement.
.
SQL allows queries that check whether a value is NULL-missing or undefined or not
applicable to compare an attribute to NULL, SQL uses IS or IS NOT
Ex: Select frame, lName
From emp
Where SSN IS NULL
11 Define functional dependency.
.
It is a constraint between two sets of attributes from the database . It requires that the
value for a certain set of attributes determines uniquely the value for another set of
attributes
It is denoted by x -> y
12 Define Normalization.
.
Normalization of data is a process of analysing the given relation schemes based on their
functional dependencies and primary keys to achieve the desirable properties of
  minimizing redundancy
 minimizing the insertion deletion update anomalies

13 Define De-normalization.
.
The process of storing the job of higher normal form relations as a base relations which
lower normal is known as De-normalization.
14 State the use of first normal form.
.
INF states that the domain of an attributes must include only atomic (simple) values that
the value of any attributes in a tuple must be a single value from the domain of that
attributes hence INF disallows having a set of values a tuple of values
15 State the use of second normal form.
.
INF is based on the concept of full functional dependency. 2NF invalids testing for
functional dependencies whose left-hand side attributes are part of the primary key. If
the primary key contains a single attributes the test need not be applied at all. A relation
schema R is in 2NF of every non prime attribute A is R is full functionally dependent on
the primary key of R.
16 State the use of third normal form.
.
3NF is based on the concepts of transitive dependency. A functional dependency x-> y in
a relations schema R is a transitive dependency if candidate key nor a subset of any key of
R and both X->Z of Z-> Y hold.
17 State the use of super key
.
Minimal set of keys to identify tuples in the relation.
Example. {empno}, {empno,name} etc.
18 State the use of multivalued dependency.
.
Multivalued dependency (MVD) is a concept in database design and normalization,
particularly in Fourth Normal Form (4NF). It represents a type of dependency in which
one attribute in a table determines a set of values for another attribute, independently of
all other attributes. Here's a breakdown of its use:
19 Outline the use join dependency.
.
A join dependency (JD) is a concept in database design and normalization, particularly
related to Fifth Normal Form (5NF). It occurs when a table can be decomposed into two
or more tables, and joining those tables back together (using natural join) completely
reconstructs the original table without any loss of data or introduction of spurious
tuples.
20 Unnormalized database structures, often referred to as UNF (Unnormalized Form), are
. databases that do not follow the principles of normalization. These structures can lead to
several data anomalies, which are issues that arise when inserting, updating, or deleting
data.
 Anomaly Cause Consequence
Insertion Inability to add data due to
Prevents the recording of valid data.
Anomaly missing fields.
Repetition of data across multiple
Update Anomaly Leads to data inconsistency.
rows.
Deletion Loss of unrelated data when
Loss of valuable information.
Anomaly deleting rows.
Wastes storage and slows down
Redundancy Duplication of data.
performance.
Allows for invalid or inconsistent
Integrity Issues Lack of constraints and structure.
data entry.
21 State the use of IN,OUT and INOUT parameter in procedure.
.
In database systems like Oracle, MySQL, and others, procedures use parameters to pass values.
These parameters can be classified as IN, OUT, and INOUT, each serving a specific purpose.

IN Parameter

 Purpose: Used to pass values into the procedure.

 Behavior:
o It acts as a read-only parameter.
o The procedure cannot modify the value of the parameter.
o Useful for passing constants, literals, or variables as input to the procedure.

OUT Parameter

 Purpose: Used to return a value from the procedure.

 Behavior:
o It acts as a write-only parameter.
o The calling program can receive the value set by the procedure, but it
cannot pass an initial value.
o Useful for returning a result (e.g., status, calculated value, etc.).

INOUT Parameter

 Purpose: Used to pass a value into the procedure, modify it, and then return it
back to the calling program.
 Behavior:
o It acts as both an input and output parameter.
o The procedure can accept an initial value, modify it, and return the updated
value.
o Useful for calculations or iterative operations where the input needs to be
updated.
22 Write the trigger to raise the message whenever the user enters less than zero during insertion
.
Oracle Example
CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER check_negative_value
BEFORE INSERT ON your_table_name
FOR EACH ROW
BEGIN
-- Check if the value being inserted is less than zero
IF :NEW.amount < 0 THEN
-- Raise an exception with a custom error message
RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR(-20001, 'Amount cannot be less than zero.');
END IF;
END;
/

MySQL Example
DELIMITER $$

CREATE TRIGGER check_negative_value

BEFORE INSERT ON your_table_name
FOR EACH ROW
BEGIN
-- Check if the value being inserted is less than zero
IF NEW.amount < 0 THEN
-- Raise an error with a custom message
SIGNAL SQLSTATE '45000'
SET MESSAGE_TEXT = 'Amount cannot be less than zero.';
END IF;
END$$

DELIMITER ;
23 Write the query to create view on employee.
.
CREATE VIEW EmployeeView AS
SELECT
Employee_ID,
Employee_Name,
Department,
Salary
FROM
Employee;
24 create a view that only includes employees with a salary greater than 50000
CREATE VIEW HighSalaryEmployees AS
SELECT
Employee_ID,
Employee_Name,
Department,
 Salary
FROM
Employee
WHERE
Salary > 50000;
25 Write trigger to raise message whenever the user tries to use database on holidays
.
Oracle Trigger
CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER prevent_access_on_holidays
AFTER LOGON ON DATABASE
BEGIN
-- Define a list of holidays
IF TO_CHAR(SYSDATE, 'MM-DD') IN ('01-01', '12-25', '07-04') THEN
-- Raise a custom error if the current date matches any holiday
RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR(-20002, 'Access to the database is not allowed on holidays.');
END IF;
END;
/
MySQL Example
DELIMITER $$

CREATE TRIGGER prevent_access_on_holidays

BEFORE INSERT ON your_table_name
FOR EACH ROW
BEGIN
-- Define a list of holidays
IF DATE_FORMAT(NOW(), '%m-%d') IN ('01-01', '12-25', '07-04') THEN
-- Raise an error with a custom message
SIGNAL SQLSTATE '45000'
SET MESSAGE_TEXT = 'Access to the database is not allowed on holidays.';
END IF;
END$$

DELIMITER ;
26 State the use of column level trigger.
.
A column-level trigger is a type of trigger that fires when a specific column in a table is updated.
27 Create the column level trigger for the given scenario.
. Let’s say you have an Employee table, and you want to track changes to the Salary column.
Whenever the Salary is updated, a record should be inserted into an AuditLog table to store
the old and new values of the Salary, along with the employee's ID and the timestamp
DELIMITER $$

CREATE TRIGGER track_salary_change

BEFORE UPDATE ON Employee
FOR EACH ROW
BEGIN
 -- Check if the Salary column is being updated
IF OLD.Salary != NEW.Salary THEN
-- Insert a record into the AuditLog table
INSERT INTO AuditLog (Employee_ID, Old_Salary, New_Salary)
VALUES (OLD.Employee_ID, OLD.Salary, NEW.Salary);
END IF;
END$$

DELIMITER ;

UNIT-III(Data Storage and Indexing Concepts)

1. State the use of RAID.
RAID (Redundant Array of Independent Disks) is a technology that uses multiple disk drives to
improve performance, reliability, or both. It combines multiple physical disks into one or more
logical units for redundancy, improved data access speed, and fault tolerance.
2. State the use of Heap File Organization.
Heap file organization is a simple method of storing data where records are stored in the order
they arrive, without any specific arrangement. It is efficient for small datasets but can be
inefficient for large datasets due to the lack of an indexing structure.
3 Outline the use of Sorted Files.
Sorted files are a file organization technique where records are stored in a specific order (usually
sorted by a key field). This structure supports faster search, insertion, and deletion operations as
compared to heap files, but inserting records requires re-sorting or maintaining the sorted order.
4. Recall the purpose of Hashing in File Organization.
Hashing is a technique used for efficient data retrieval. A hash function maps data (usually a key)
to a fixed size table or bucket, allowing for direct access to the records. Hashing supports
constant-time lookup operations but can be inefficient if there are too many collisions.
5. State the use of Primary Index.
A primary index is an index on the primary key of a file, where the index records are stored in the
same order as the data file. It allows for quick access to records based on the primary key.
6. State the use of B-Tree.
A B-Tree is a balanced tree data structure that maintains sorted data and allows for efficient
searching, insertion, deletion, and range queries. It is commonly used in databases and file
systems for indexing.
7. Define B+ Tree Index.
A B+ Tree is an extension of the B-Tree where all the data (records) are stored at the leaf nodes,
and internal nodes store only keys. This structure allows for efficient searching, and the leaf
nodes are linked for easy range queries.
8. Differentiate between a B-Tree and a B+ Tree.
The key difference between a B-Tree and a B+ Tree is that in a B-Tree, both internal and leaf
nodes store data, while in a B+ Tree, only the leaf nodes store the actual data, and internal nodes
store only keys for navigation. B+ Trees are more efficient for range queries as all the records are
stored in the leaf nodes and are linked.
9. Outline the advantages of RAID.
 RAID offers several advantages including data redundancy (fault tolerance), improved read/write
performance (depending on the RAID level), and better storage utilization. Different RAID levels
provide different balances of performance, redundancy, and cost.
10 Explain the operations on files
.
Operations on files include Insertion (adding new records), Deletion (removing records), Update
(modifying existing records), and Search (finding records). These operations can be optimized
with the help of indexing structures like B-Trees or hashing.
11 List the types of indexes in databases.
.
There are several types of indexes in databases, including Primary Index, Secondary Index,
Clustered Index, and Non-clustered Index. Each type serves a different purpose depending on
the file organization and query requirements.
12 Recall the use of clustered index.
.
A clustered index is an index where the data rows are stored in the same order as the index. The
table itself is organized based on the index key, making retrieval faster but only one clustered
index can exist per table.
13 Define Non-clustered index.
.
A non-clustered index is an index that does not alter the physical order of the data in the table. It
creates a separate structure to store the index, and each index entry points to the corresponding
data row.
14 State the use of RAID level 0.
.
RAID 0, also known as "striping," splits data into blocks and stores them across multiple
disks. It offers improved performance as data is read and written in parallel, but it does not
provide redundancy, meaning data is lost if any drive fails.
15 State the use of RAID level 1.
.
RAID 1, known as "mirroring," duplicates data across two or more drives. It provides redundancy,
ensuring data availability even if one drive fails, but at the cost of storage capacity (it requires
twice the storage).
16 State the use of RAID level 5.
.
RAID 5 uses striping with parity. Data is distributed across multiple drives along with
parity information, allowing for fault tolerance. It requires at least three drives and can
tolerate the failure of one drive without losing data.
17 List out the benefits of sorted files
.
 Efficient for range queries.
 Easier to retrieve records in a sorted manner.
18 List the drawbacks of sorted files.
.
 Expensive insertion and deletion operations.
 Requires sorting after modifications.
19 List the types of hashing.
.
 Static Hashing
 Dynamic Hashing
20 Compare dynamic hashing over static hashing
.
Dynamic hashing adjusts the hash table size dynamically to accommodate more records
without collisions.
21 State the use of index.
.
An index is a data structure that improves the speed of data retrieval operations.
22 List the types of indexing
.
 Single-Level Index
 Multi-Level Index
 Clustered Index
 Non-Clustered Index
23 State the properties of a B-Tree.
.
 All leaf nodes are at the same level.
 Nodes are filled at least half, except the root.
24 List the advantages of a B+ Tree over a B-Tree
 Easier to traverse for range queries.
 Faster sequential access.
25 State the use of a primary key in a file system
.
A primary key is a unique identifier for a record in a database or file.
26 State the use of secondary index.
.
A secondary index provides an additional path to access records without altering the physical
order of records.
27 State the difference between heap files and hashed files.
.
 Heap files store records without order.
 Hashed files use a hash function to determine record location.
28 State use of range query.
.
A range query retrieves all records with key values within a specific range.
29 State the use of fanout in a B-Tree
.
The fanout is the maximum number of children a node can have in a B-Tree.

UNIT-IV(Transaction Management)
1. State the use of query processing.
It refers to the range of activities involved in extracting data from the database.
2. Define query optimization.
It is a process of selecting the most efficient query evolution plan for a query.
3 State the use of primary index.
It is an index that allows the records of the file to be read in an order that corresponds to
the physical order in the file.
4. State the use of timestamp.
An approach for preventing dead lock is to use preemption and transaction rollbacks. To
control preemption, we assign a unique time stamp to each transaction.
5. Define lock.
It is a variable associated with a data item that describes the status of the item with
respect to possible operations that can be applied to it.
6. State the types of locks.
 Share Lock
 Exclusive Lock

7. Define two-phase locking protocol.

One protocol that ensures serializability is the two-phase locking protocol. This protocol
ensures that each transaction issue lock & unlock requests in two phases:
Growing phase: a transaction may obtain locks but may not release any lock.
Shrinking phase: a transaction may be release locks but may not obtain nay new locks.
8. State the purpose of transactions.
Collections of operations that form a single logical unit of work are called transaction.
9. List the properties of transactions.
1. Atomicity
2. Consistency
3. Isolation
4. Durability
10 State the use of committed transaction.
.
A transaction that completes its execution successfully is said to be committed
11 Outline the use of rollback.
.

Once the changes caused by an aborted transaction have been undone, we say that the
transaction has been rolled back.
12 List the different types of database users.
.
1.Application users
2.Sophodticated users
3.Specialised users
4.Navie users.
13 Define W-timestamp and R-timestamp.
.
 W-timestamp(Q), which denotes the largest timestamp of any transaction that
successfully executed write(Q).
R-timestamp(Q), which denotes the largest timestamp of any transaction that
successfully executed read(Q).
14 Define deadlock state.
.
A system is in a deadlock state if there exists a set of transactions such that every
transaction in the set is waiting for another transaction in that set.
15 Outline the use of deadlock prevention.
.
We can use a deadlock prevention protocol to ensure that the system will never enter a
deadlock state. Alternatively we can allow the system to enter a deadlock state & try to
recover using a deadlock detection & recovery is used.
16 Outline recovery.
.
Selecting a victim: given a set of deadlocked transactions we must determine which
transaction to be rolled back in order to break the deadlock. We should rollback the
transaction will inquire minimum cost.
17 State the use of starvation.
.
Starvation in the system where the selecting of victims is based primarily on cost factors,
it may happen that the same transactions is always picked as a victim. As a result, this
transaction never completes its designed task. This situation is called starvation.
18 State the use of serializability.
.
Serializability is a useful concept because it allows programmers to ignore issues related
to concurrency when the code transactions. The protocols required o ensure
serializabillity may allow too little concurrency for certain applications.
19 State the use time based protocol.
.
Another method for determining the serializability order is to select an ordering among
transactions in advance. The most common method for doing so is to use a timestamp
ordering scheme.
20 Define atomicity.
.
It is the process of combining two or more procedure together such that either they all
complete or they all roll back.
21 List the types failures occurring in a system.
.
1. Transaction failure
a)logical error
b)system error
2. System crash
3. Disk failure
22 List the types of storage media.
.
1. Volatile storage
2. Non-volatile storage
3. Stable storage
23 List the techniques available for recovery.
.
1. Deferred update
2. Immediate update
24 Define deferred update.
.
Do not physically update the database on disk until after a transaction reaches its commit
point. Then the updates are recorded in the database
25 Define immediate update.
.
The d/b may be updated by some operations if a transaction before the transactions
reaches its commit point
26 State the use of dirty-bit.
.
To indicate whether or not the buffer has been modified

UNIT-V(Current Trends)
1. Define distributed databases.
D.D is a collection of multiple logically interrelated databases distributed over a computer
2. Outline the functions of distributed d/b.
Keeping track of data
Distributed query processing
Distributed transaction management
Replicated data management
Distributed d/b recovery
Security
3 Define data fragmentation.
The process of breaking the d/b into logical units called fragments, which may be assigned
at the various sites is known as fragmentation.
4. Define object.
An object has two components, one is state (value) and another is behavior (operations).
5. State the purpose of transient object
Transient object exists in the executing program & disappears once the program
terminates.
6. State the use of persistence object.
They are stored in the d/b & persists after program termination.
7. Define unstructured complex objects.
The objects are unstructured in the sense that the DBMS does not know what their
structure is only the application that uses them can interpret their memory.
8. Define structured complex objects.
A structured complex object is that the object structure is defined by repeated
application of the type constructors provided by OODBMS.
9. Define polymorphism.
This concepts allows the same operator name or symbol to be bound to two or more
different implementations of the operator depending upon the types of object to which
the operator is applied.
10 Define data mining.
.
Data mining refers to the mining of discovery of new information in term of patterns or
rules from cast amounts of data.
11 List the phases in knowledge discovery process.
.
1. Data selection
2. Data cleansing
3. Enrichment
4. Data transformation (or) encoding
5. Data mining
6. Reporting & display the discovered information
12 List the applications of data mining.
.
1. Advertising
2. Store location
3. Targeted mailing
4. Segmentation of customer
5. Design of catalogs
6. Store layout.
13 Define data warehousing.
.
W.H. Inmon characterized a data warehouse as a subject oriented, integrated, non-
volatile, time varient collection of data in support of management’s decisions. It provides
access to data for complex analysis, knowledge discovery & decision making
14 List the functionality of data warehouse.
.
1. Roll up
2. Drill down
3. Pivot
4. Slice & dice
5. Sorting
6. Selection
7. Derived attributes
15 Define back flushing.
.
The process of returning cleaned data to the source is called back flushing.
16 List the two basic architecture for data warehouse.
.
1. Distributed warehouse
2. Federated warehouse
17 State the goals of data mining.
.
1. Prediction
2. Identification
3. Classification
4. Optimization

18 In how many ways can we describe the knowledge discovered?

.
1. Association rules
2. Classification hierarchy
3. Sequential patterns
4. Patterns within finite series
5. Categorization & segmentation
19 Define horizontal fragmentation.
.
It is a subset of the tuples in the relation. It divides a relation ‘horizontally ‘ by grouping
rows to create subsets of tuples, where each subset has a certain logical meaning. These
fragments can then be assigned to different sites in the distributed system
20 Define vertical fragmentation.
.
Each site may not need all the attributes of a relation, which would indicate the need for
a different type of fragmentation. A vertical fragment of a relation keeps only certain
attributes of the relation.
21 Define mixed fragmentation.
.
We can intermix the two types of fragmentation’s, yielding a mixed fragmentation
22 List the different types of transparencies.
.
1.Distributors(or) network transparency
2.Replication transparency
3.Fragmentation transparency
23 List the factors that distinguish a DDBMS from a centralized system.
.
 They are multiple computers, called sites or nodes.
 Some type of communication n/w to transmit data & commands among sites
must connect these sites.
24 State the purpose of association rule mining.
.
The purpose of association rule mining is to uncover interesting relationships, patterns, or
associations among items in a dataset. It is a key technique in data mining, often used to analyze
and predict customer behavior, uncover hidden correlations, and support decision-making.
25 State the use of prediction.
.
Prediction is used to make informed guesses or estimates about future events or outcomes based
on historical data or trends. The primary use of prediction is to help organizations, individuals,
and systems forecast future conditions and make proactive decisions.
26 List some of the key uses of prediction.
.
 Forecasting:

 Predict future trends, such as stock market movements, weather conditions, or

sales figures, to guide decision-making.

 Risk Management:

 Predict potential risks or failures in systems, processes, or projects, helping

organizations mitigate those risks.

 Personalization:

 In e-commerce or content platforms, prediction models are used to forecast user

preferences and recommend products, services, or content tailored to individual
users.

 Demand Forecasting:

 Predict customer demand for products, helping businesses optimize inventory,

reduce costs, and improve supply chain management.

 Fraud Detection:

 Predict potentially fraudulent activities in banking, insurance, or credit card

transactions, based on patterns in historical data.

 Health Predictions:

 Predict the onset of medical conditions, disease outbreaks, or the effectiveness of

treatments, enabling better healthcare planning and interventions.

 Marketing and Sales:

 Predict which marketing campaigns will be successful, identify high-value

 customers, and optimize pricing strategies.

 Resource Allocation:

 In various industries, prediction models are used to estimate future resource needs
(e.g., human resources, materials, or energy) to plan for optimal allocation.

Course Instructor/ Course Coordinator Module Coordinator HOD/CSE