Lecture Notes Mechatronics (M.

Tech, Design Dynamics)

Module-II
Sensors and Transducers: An introduction to sensors and Transducers, use of sensor and transducer for
specific purpose in mechatronics. Transducer signal conditioning and Devices for Data conversion
programmable controllers. ;

Sensors and transducers

Measurement is an important subsystem of a mechatronics system. Its main

function is to collect the information on system status and to feed it to the
micro-processor(s) for controlling the whole system.

Measurement system comprises of sensors, transducers and signal processing

devices. Today a wide variety of these elements and devices are available
in the market.

For a mechatronics system designer it is quite difficult to choose suitable

sensors/transducers for the desired application(s). It is therefore essential to
learn the principle of working of commonly used sensors/transducers.
Sensors in manufacturing are basically employed to automatically carry out the
production operations as well as process monitoring activities. Sensor
technology has the following important advantages in transforming a
conventional manufacturing unit into a modern one.
 Sensors alarm the system operators about the failure of any of the sub
units of manufacturing system. It helps operators to reduce the
downtime of complete manufacturing system by carrying out the
preventative measures.
 Reduces requirement of skilled and experienced labors.
 Ultra-precision in product quality can be achieved.
Sensor

It is defined as an element which produces signal relating to the quantity being

measured. According to the Instrument Society of America, sensor can be
defined as “A device which provides a usable output in response to a
specified measurand.” Here, the output is usually an ‘electrical quantity’ and
measurand is a ‘physical quantity, property or condition which is to be
measured’. Thus in the case of, say, a variable inductance displacement

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element, the quantity being measured is displacement and the sensor

transforms an input of displacement into a change in inductance.

Input Signal Output Signal

Sensor

Sensors are also called detectors.

Need for Sensors

 Sensors are omnipresent. They embedded in our bodies, automobiles,
airplanes, cellular telephones, radios, chemical plants, industrial plants
and countless other applications.
 Without the use of sensors, there would be no automation

Transducer

It is defined as an element when subjected to some physical change

experiences a related change or an element which converts a specified
measurand into a usable output by using a transduction principle. It can also
be defined as a device that converts a signal from one form of energy to
another form.
A wire of Constantan alloy (copper-nickel 55-45% alloy) can be called as a
sensor because variation in mechanical displacement (tension or
compression) can be sensed as change in electric resistance. This wire
becomes a transducer with appropriate electrodes and input-output
mechanism attached to it. Thus we can say that ‘sensors are transducers’.
Basic elements of transducer
• There are basically two elements which constructs a transducer and
they are
• A sensing ELEMENT

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Sensor/transducers specifications

Transducers or measurement systems are not perfect systems. Mechatronics

design engineer must know the capability and shortcoming of a transducer
or measurement system to properly assess its performance. There are a
number of performance related parameters of a transducer or measurement
system. These parameters are called as sensor specifications.
Sensor specifications inform the user to the about deviations from the ideal
behavior of the sensors. Following are the various specifications of a
sensor/transducer system.
1. Range

The range of a sensor indicates the limits between which the input can vary.
For example, a thermocouple for the measurement of temperature might
have a range of 25-225 °C.
2. Span

The span is difference between the maximum and minimum values of the input.
Thus, the above-mentioned thermocouple will have a span of 200 °C.
3. Error
Error is the difference between the result of the measurement and the true value
of the quantity being measured. A sensor might give a displacement reading
of 29.8 mm, when the actual displacement had been 30 mm, then the error
is –0.2 mm.

4. Accuracy
The accuracy defines the closeness of the agreement between the actual
measurement result and a true value of the measurand. It is often expressed
as a percentage of the full range output or full–scale deflection. A

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piezoelectric transducer used to evaluate dynamic pressure phenomena

associated with explosions, pulsations, or dynamic pressure conditions in
motors, rocket engines, compressors, and other pressurized devices is
capable to detect pressures between 0.1 and 10,000 psig (0.7 KPa to 70
MPa). If it is specified with the accuracy of about ±1% full scale, then the
reading given can be expected to be within ± 0.7 MPa.
5. Sensitivity

Sensitivity of a sensor is defined as the ratio of change in output value of a

sensor to the per unit change in input value that causes the output change.
For example, a general purpose thermocouple may have a sensitivity of 41
μV/°C.
6. Nonlinearity

Non-linearity error
The nonlinearity indicates the maximum deviation of the actual measured curve
of a sensor from the ideal curve. Figure above shows a somewhat
exaggerated relationship between the ideal, or least squares fit, line and the
actual measured or calibration line. Linearity is often specified in terms of
percentage of nonlinearity, which is defined as:
Nonlinearity (%) = Maximum deviation in input ⁄ Maximum full scale input (1)
The static nonlinearity defined by Equation (1) is dependent upon
environmental factors, including temperature, vibration, acoustic noise level,

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and humidity. Therefore it is important to know under what conditions the

specification is valid.

7. Hysteresis

Hysteresis error curve

The hysteresis is an error of a sensor, which is defined as the maximum
difference in output at any measurement value within the sensor’s specified
range when approaching the point first with increasing and then with
decreasing the input parameter. Figure above shows the hysteresis error
might have occurred during measurement of temperature using a
thermocouple. The hysteresis error value is normally specified as a positive
or negative percentage of the specified input range.
8. Resolution

Resolution is the smallest detectable incremental change of input parameter

that can be detected in the output signal. Resolution can be expressed either
as a proportion of the full-scale reading or in absolute terms. For example, if
a LVDT sensor measures a displacement up to 20 mm and it provides an
output as a number between 1 and 100 then the resolution of the sensor
device is 0.2 mm.
9. Stability

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Stability is the ability of a sensor device to give same output when used to
measure a constant input over a period of time. The term ‘drift’ is used to
indicate the change in output that occurs over a period of time. It is expressed
as the percentage of full range output.
10.Dead band/time

The dead band or dead space of a transducer is the range of input values for
which there is no output. The dead time of a sensor device is the time
duration from the application of an input until the output begins to respond or
change.
11.Repeatability

It specifies the ability of a sensor to give same output for repeated applications
of same input value. It is usually expressed as a percentage of the full range
output:
Repeatability = (maximum – minimum values given) X 100 ⁄ full range (2)
12.Response time

Response time describes the speed of change in the output on a step-wise

change of the measurand. It is always specified with an indication of input
step and the output range for which the response time is defined.

Classification of sensors
Sensors can be classified into various groups according to the factors such as
measurand, application fields, conversion principle, energy domain of the
measurand and thermodynamic considerations. These general
classifications of sensors are well described in the references
Detail classification of sensors in view of their applications in manufacturing is
as follows.
A. Displacement, position and proximity sensors
• Potentiometer
• Strain-gauged element
• Capacitive element
• Differential transformers
• Eddy current proximity sensors
• Inductive proximity switch
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• Optical encoders
• Pneumatic sensors
• Proximity switches (magnetic)
• Hall effect sensors
B. Velocity and motion
• Incremental encoder
• Tachogenerator
• Pyroelectric sensors

C. Force
• Strain gauge load cell
D. Fluid pressure
• Diaphragm pressure gauge
• Capsules, bellows, pressure tubes
• Piezoelectric sensors
• Tactile sensor

E. Liquid flow
• Orifice plate
• Turbine meter

F. Liquid level
• Floats
• Differential pressure

G. Temperature
• Bimetallic strips
• Resistance temperature detectors
• Thermistors
• Thermo-diodes and transistors
• Thermocouples
• Light sensors
• Photo diodes
• Photo resistors
• Photo transistor

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Displacement and position sensors

Displacement sensors are basically used for the measurement of movement
of an object. Position sensors are employed to determine the position of an
object in relation to some reference point.
Proximity sensors are a type of position sensor and are used to trace when
an object has moved with in particular critical distance of a transducer.
Displacement sensors
1. Potentiometer Sensors

Schematic of a potentiometer sensor for measurement of linear

displacement

Figure above shows the construction of a rotary type potentiometer sensor

employed to measure the linear displacement. The potentiometer can be of
linear or angular type. It works on the principle of conversion of mechanical
displacement into an electrical signal. The sensor has a resistive element
and a sliding contact (wiper). The slider moves along this conductive body,
acting as a movable electric contact.
The object of whose displacement is to be measured is connected to the
slider by using
• a rotating shaft (for angular displacement)
• a moving rod (for linear displacement)
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• a cable that is kept stretched during operation

The resistive element is a wire wound track or conductive plastic. The track
comprises of large number of closely packed turns of a resistive wire.
Conductive plastic is made up of plastic resin embedded with the carbon
powder. Wire wound track has a resolution of the order of ± 0.01 % while the
conductive plastic may have the resolution of about 0.1 μm.
During the sensing operation, a voltage Vs is applied across the resistive
element. A voltage divider circuit is formed when slider comes into contact
with the wire. The output voltage (VA) is measured as shown in the figure
below. The output voltage is proportional to the displacement of the slider
over the wire. Then the output parameter displacement is calibrated against
the output voltage VA.

Potentiometer: electric circuit

Applications of potentiometer
These sensors are primarily used in the control systems with a feedback loop
to ensure that the moving member or component reaches its commanded
position.
These are typically used on machine-tool controls, elevators, liquid-level
assemblies, forklift trucks, automobile throttle controls. In manufacturing,
these are used in control of injection molding machines, woodworking

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machinery, printing, spraying, robotics, etc. These are also used in

computer-controlled monitoring of sports equipment.
Strain Gauges
The strain in an element is a ratio of change in length in the direction of
applied load to the original length of an element. The strain changes the
resistance R of the element. Therefore, we can say,
ΔR/R α ε;
ΔR/R = G ε (2.2.5)
where G is the constant of proportionality and is called as gauge factor.
In general, the value of G is considered in between 2 to 4 and the
resistances are taken of the order of 100 Ω.

A pattern of resistive foils

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Whetstone’s bridge
Resistance strain gauge follows the principle of change in resistance as per
the equation 2.2.5. It comprises of a pattern of resistive foil arranged as
shown in Figure 2.2.3. These foils are made of Constantan alloy (copper-
nickel 55-45% alloy) and are bonded to a backing material plastic
(ployimide), epoxy or glass fiber reinforced epoxy. The strain gauges are
secured to the workpiece by using epoxy or Cyanoacrylate cement Eastman
910 SL. As the workpiece undergoes change in its shape due to external
loading, the resistance of strain gauge element changes. This change in
resistance can be detected by a using a Wheatstone’s resistance bridge as
shown in Figure 2.2.4. In the balanced bridge we can have a relation,
R2/ R1 = Rx / R3
where Rx is resistance of strain gauge element, R2 is balancing/adjustable
resistor, R1 and R3 are known constant value resistors. The measured
deformation or displacement by the stain gauge is calibrated against change

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in resistance of adjustable resistor R2 which makes the voltage across nodes

A and B equal to zero.
Applications of strain gauges
Strain gauges are widely used in experimental stress analysis and diagnosis
on machines and failure analysis. They are basically used for multi-axial
stress fatigue testing, proof testing, residual stress and vibration
measurement, torque measurement, bending and deflection measurement,
compression and tension measurement and strain measurement.
Strain gauges are primarily used as sensors for machine tools and safety in
automotives. In particular, they are employed for force measurement in
machine tools, hydraulic or pneumatic press and as impact sensors in
aerospace vehicles.
Capacitive element based sensor
Capacitive sensor is of non-contact type sensor and is primarily used to
measure the linear displacements from few millimeters to hundreds of
millimeters. It comprises of three plates, with the upper pair forming one
capacitor and the lower pair another. The linear displacement might take in
two forms:
a. one of the plates is moved by the displacement so that the plate separation
changes
b. area of overlap changes due to the displacement.

Figure below shows the schematic of three-plate capacitive element sensor

and displacement measurement of a mechanical element connected to the
plate 2.

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Displacement measurement using capacitive element sensor

The capacitance C of a parallel plate capacitor is given by,
C = εr εo A / d
where εr is the relative permittivity of the dielectric between the plates, εo
permittivity of free space, A area of overlap between two plates and d the
plate separation.
As the central plate moves near to top plate or bottom one due to the
movement of the element /workpiece of which displacement is to be
measured, separation in between the plate changes. This can be given as,
C1 = (εr εo A) / (d + x)
C2 = (εr εo A) / (d – x)
When C1 and C2 are connected to a Wheatsone’s bridge, then the resulting
out-of-balance voltage would be in proportional to displacement x.
Capacitive elements can also be used as proximity sensor. The approach of
the object towards the sensor plate is used for induction of change in plate
separation. This changes the capacitance which is used to detect the object.

Applications of capacitive element sensors

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• Feed hopper level monitoring

• Small vessel pump control
• Grease level monitoring
• Level control of liquids
• Metrology applications o to measure shape errors in the part being
produced
o to analyze and optimize the rotation of spindles in various machine tools
such as surface grinders, lathes, milling machines, and air bearing spindles
by measuring errors in the machine tools themselves

• Assembly line testing o to test assembled parts for uniformity, thickness or

other design features
o to detect the presence or absence of a certain component, such as glue
etc.

Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT)

Construction of a LVDT sensor

Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) is a primary transducer used
for measurement of linear displacement with an input range of about ± 2 to
± 400 mm in general. It has non-linearity error ± 0.25% of full range. Figure
2.2.6 shows the construction of a LVDT sensor. It has three coils
symmetrically spaced along an insulated tube. The central coil is primary coil
and the other two are secondary coils. Secondary coils are connected in
series in such a way that their outputs oppose each other. A magnetic core
attached to the element of which displacement is to be monitored is placed
inside the insulated tube.

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Working of LVDT sensor

Due to an alternating voltage input to the primary coil, alternating electro-
magnetic forces (emfs) are generated in secondary coils. When the magnetic
core is centrally placed with its half portion in each of the secondary coil
regions then the resultant voltage is zero. If the core is displaced from the
central position as shown in Figure 2.2.7, say, more in secondary coil 1 than
in coil 2, then more emf is generated in one coil i.e. coil 1 than the other, and
there is a resultant voltage from the coils. If the magnetic core is further
displaced, then the value of resultant voltage increases in proportion with the
displacement. With the help of signal processing devices such as low pass
filters and demodulators, precise displacement can be measured by using
LVDT sensors.
LVDT exhibits good repeatability and reproducibility. It is generally used as
an absolute position sensor. Since there is no contact or sliding between the
constituent elements of the sensor, it is highly reliable. These sensors are
completely sealed and are widely used in Servomechanisms, automated
measurement in machine tools.
A rotary variable differential transformer (RVDT) can be used for the
measurement of rotation. Readers are suggested to prepare a report on
principle of working and construction of RVDT sensor.
Applications of LVDT sensors
• Measurement of spool position in a wide range of servo valve applications
• To provide displacement feedback for hydraulic cylinders
• To control weight and thickness of medicinal products viz. tablets or pills

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• For automatic inspection of final dimensions of products being packed for

dispatch
• To measure distance between the approaching metals during Friction
welding process
• To continuously monitor fluid level as part of leak detection system
• To detect the number of currency bills dispensed by an ATM
Displacement, position and proximity sensors

Eddy current proximity sensors

Schematic of Inductive Proximity Sensor

Eddy current proximity sensors are used to detect non-magnetic but
conductive materials. They comprise of a coil, an oscillator, a detector and a
triggering circuit. Figure 2.3.1 shows the construction of eddy current
proximity switch. When an alternating current is passed thru this coil, an
alternative magnetic field is generated. If a metal object comes in the close
proximity of the coil, then eddy currents are induced in the object due to the
magnetic field. These eddy currents create their own magnetic field which
distorts the magnetic field responsible for their generation. As a result,
impedance of the coil changes and so the amplitude of alternating current.
This can be used to trigger a switch at some pre-determined level of change
in current.
Eddy current sensors are relatively inexpensive, available in small in size,
highly reliable and have high sensitivity for small displacements.
Applications of eddy current proximity sensors
• Automation requiring precise location
• Machine tool monitoring

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• Final assembly of precision equipment such as disk drives

• Measuring the dynamics of a continuously moving target, such as a
vibrating element,
• Drive shaft monitoring
• Vibration measurements

Pneumatic Sensors

Working of Pneumatic Sensors

Pneumatic sensors are used to measure the displacement as well as to
sense the proximity of an object close to it. The displacement and proximity
are transformed into change in air pressure. Figure 2.3.4 shows a schematic
of construction and working of such a sensor. It comprises of three ports.
Low pressure air is allowed to escape through port A. In the absence of any
obstacle / object, this low pressure air escapes and in doing so, reduces the
pressure in the port B. However when an object obstructs the low pressure
air (Port A), there is rise in pressure in output port B. This rise in pressure is
calibrated to measure the displacement or to trigger a switch. These sensors
are used in robotics, pneumatics and for tooling in CNC machine tools.

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Proximity Switches

Figure above shows a number of configurations of contact-type proximity

switch being used in manufacturing automation. These are small electrical
switches which require physical contact and a small operating force to close
the contacts. They are basically employed on conveyor systems to detect
the presence of an item on the conveyor belt.

Hall effect sensor

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Principle of working of Hall effect sensor

Figure above shows the principle of working of Hall effect sensor. Hall effect
sensors work on the principle that when a beam of charge particles passes
through a magnetic field, forces act on the particles and the current beam is
deflected from its straight line path. Thus one side of the disc will become
negatively charged and the other side will be of positive charge. This charge
separation generates a potential difference which is the measure of distance
of magnetic field from the disc carrying current.
The typical application of Hall effect sensor is the measurement of fluid level
in a container. The container comprises of a float with a permanent magnet
attached at its top. An electric circuit with a current carrying disc is mounted
in the casing. When the fluid level increases, the magnet will come close to
the disc and a potential difference generates. This voltage triggers a switch
to stop the fluid to come inside the container.
These sensors are used for the measurement of displacement and the
detection of position of an object. Hall effect sensors need necessary signal
conditioning circuitry. They can be operated at 100 kHz. Their non-contact
nature of operation, good immunity to environment contaminants and ability
to sustain in severe conditions make them quite popular in industrial
automation.
Velocity, motion, force and pressure sensors
Tachogenerator

Principle of working of Techogenerator

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Tachogenerator works on the principle of variable reluctance. It consists of

an assembly of a toothed wheel and a magnetic circuit as shown in figure
2.4.1. Toothed wheel is mounted on the shaft or the element of which angular
motion is to be measured. Magnetic circuit comprising of a coil wound on a
ferromagnetic material core. As the wheel rotates, the air gap between wheel
tooth and magnetic core changes which results in cyclic change in flux linked
with the coil. The alternating emf generated is the measure of angular
motion. A pulse shaping signal conditioner is used to transform the output
into a number of pulses which can be counted by a counter.

Pyroelectric sensors

Principle of pyroelectricity
These sensors work on the principle of pyroelectricity, which states that a
crystal material such as Lithium tantalite generates charge in response to
heat flow. In presence of an electric field, when such a crystal material heats
up, its electrical dipoles line up as shown in figure 2.4.3. This is called as
polarization. On cooling, the material retains its polarization. In absence of
electric field, when this polarized material is subjected to infrared irradiation,
its polarization reduces. This phenomenon is the measure of detection of
movement of an object.

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Construction and working a Pyroelectric sensor

Pyroelectric sensor comprises of a thick element of polarized material coated
with thin film electrodes on opposite faces as shown in figure 2.4.4. Initially
the electrodes are in electrical equilibrium with the polarized material. On
incident of infra red, the material heats up and reduces its polarization. This
leads to charge imbalance at the interface of crystal and electrodes. To
balance this disequilibrium, measurement circuit supplies the charge, which
is calibrated against the detection of an object or its movement.
Applications of Pyroelectric sensors
• Intrusion detector
• Optothermal detector
• Pollution detector
• Position sensor
• Solar cell studies
• Engine analysis

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Strain Gauge as force Sensor

Strain gauge based Load cell

Strain gauge based sensors work on the principle of change in electrical

resistance. When, a mechanical element subjects to a tension or a
compression the electric resistance of the material changes. This is used to
measure the force acted upon the element.
Figure above shows a strain gauge load cell. It comprises of cylindrical tube
to which strain gauges are attached. A load applied on the top collar of the
cylinder compress the strain gauge element which changes its electrical
resistance. Generally strain gauges are used to measure forces up to 10 MN.
The non-linearity and repeatability errors of this transducer are ±0.03% and
±0.02% respectively.

Fluid pressure
Chemical, petroleum, power industry often need to monitor fluid pressure.
Various types of instruments such as diaphragms, capsules, and bellows are
used to monitor the fluid pressure. Specially designed strain gauges doped
in diaphragms are generally used to measure the inlet manifold pressure in
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applications such as automobiles. A typical arrangement of strain gauges on

a diaphragm is shown in figure 2.4.6. Application of pressurized fluid
displaces the diaphragm. This displacement is measured by the stain
gauges in terms of radial and/or lateral strains. These strain gauges are
connected to form the arms of a Wheatstone bridge.

A diaphragm

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Schematic of Capsule and Bellow

Bellow with a LVDT

Capsule is formed by combining two corrugated diaphragms. It has
enhanced sensitivity in comparison with that of diaphragms. Figure 2.4.7
shows a schematic of a Capsule and a Bellow. A stack of capsules is called
as ‘Bellows’. Bellows with a LVDT sensor measures the fluid pressure in
terms of change in resultant voltage across the secondary coils of LVDT.
Figure above shows a typical arrangement of the same.

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Tactile sensors

Schematic of a tactile sensor

In general, tactile sensors are used to sense the contact of fingertips of a
robot with an object. They are also used in manufacturing of ‘touch display’
screens of visual display units (VDUs) of CNC machine tools. Figure 2.4.9
shows the construction of piezo-electric polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF)
based tactile sensor. It has two PVDF layers separated by a soft film which
transmits the vibrations. An alternating current is applied to lower PVDF layer
which generates vibrations due to reverse piezoelectric effect. These
vibrations are transmitted to the upper PVDF layer via soft film. These
vibrations cause alternating voltage across the upper PVDF layer. When
some pressure is applied on the upper PVDF layer the vibrations gets
affected and the output voltage changes. This triggers a switch or an action
in robots or touch displays.

Piezoelectric sensor

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Principle of working of Piezoelectric sensor

Piezoelectric sensor is used for the measurement of pressure, acceleration and
dynamic-forces such as oscillation, impact, or high speed compression or
tension. It contains piezoelectric ionic crystal materials such as Quartz
(Figure). On application of force or pressure these materials get stretched or
compressed. During this process, the charge over the material changes and
redistributes. One face of the material becomes positively charged and the
other negatively charged. The net charge q on the surface is proportional to
the amount x by which the charges have been displaced. The displacement
is proportion to force. Therefore we can write,
q = kx = SF
where k is constant and S is a constant termed the charge sensitivity.

Liquid flow
Liquid flow is generally measured by applying the Bernoulli’s principle of fluid
flow through a constriction. The quantity of fluid flow is computed by using
the pressure drop measured. The fluid flow volume is proportional to square

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root of pressure difference at the two ends of the constriction. There are
various types of fluid flow measurement devices being used in manufacturing
automation such as Orifice plate, Turbine meter etc.

Orifice Plate

Orifice Plate

Figure above shows a schematic of Orifice plate device. It has a disc with a hole
at its center, through which the fluid flows. The pressure difference is
measured between a point equal to the diameter of the tube upstream and a
point equal to the half the diameter downstream. Orifice plate is inexpensive
and simple in construction with no moving parts. It exhibits nonlinear
behavior and does not work with slurries. It has accuracy of ± 1.5%.
Turbine meter

Schematic of turbine meter

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Turbine flow meter has an accuracy of ±0.3%. It has a multi blade rotor mounted
centrally in the pipe along which the flow is to be measured. Figure 2.4.12
shows the typical arrangement of the rotor and a magnetic pick up coil. The
fluid flow rotates the rotor. Accordingly the magnetic pick up coil counts the
number of magnetic pulses generated due to the distortion of magnetic field
by the rotor blades. The angular velocity is proportional to the number of
pulses and fluid flow is proportional to angular velocity.
8. Fluid level

The level of liquid in a vessel or container can be measured,

a. directly by monitoring the position of liquid surface
b. indirectly by measuring some variable related to the height.

Direct measurements involve the use of floats however the indirect methods
employ load cells. Potentiometers or LVDT sensors can be used along with
the floats to measure the height of fluid column. Force sensed by the load
cells is proportional to the height of fluid column.
Temperature and light sensors
Temperature conveys the state of a mechanical system in terms of
expansion or contraction of solids, liquids or gases, change in electrical
resistance of conductors, semiconductors and thermoelectric emfs.
Temperature sensors such as bimetallic strips, thermocouples, thermistors
are widely used in monitoring of manufacturing processes such as casting,
molding, metal cutting etc. The construction details and principle of working
of some of the temperature sensors are discussed in following sections.
1. Bimetallic strips

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Construction and working of Bi-metallic strip

Bimetallic strips are used as thermal switch in controlling the temperature or

heat in a manufacturing process or system. It contains two different metal
strips bonded together. The metals have different coefficients of expansion.
On heating the strips bend into curved strips with the metal with higher
coefficient of expansion on the outside of the curve. Figure 2.5.1 shows a
typical arrangement of a bimetallic strip used with a setting-up magnet. As
the strips bend, the soft iron comes in closer proximity of the small magnet
and further touches. Then the electric circuit completes and generates an
alarm. In this way bimetallic strips help to protect the desired application from
heating above the pre-set value of temperature.
2. Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs)

RTDs work on the principle that the electric resistance of a metal changes
due to change in its temperature. On heating up metals, their resistance

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increases and follows a linear relationship as shown in Figure 2.5.2. The

correlation is
Rt = R0 (1 + αT) (2.5.1)

where Rt is the resistance at temperature T (⁰C) and R0 is the temperature

at 0⁰C and α is the constant for the metal termed as temperature coefficient
of resistance. The sensor is usually made to have a resistance of 100 Ω at 0
°C

Behavior of RTD materials

Construction of a Resistance temperature detector (RTD)

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Figure above shows the construction of a RTD. It has a resistor element

connected to a Wheatstone bridge. The element and the connection leads
are insulated and protected by a sheath. A small amount of current is
continuously passing though the coil. As the temperature changes the
resistance of the coil changes which is detected at the Wheatstone
bridge.RTDs are used in the form of thin films, wire wound or coil. They are
generally made of metals such as platinum, nickel or nickel-copper alloys.
Platinum wire held by a high-temperature glass adhesive in a ceramic tube
is used to measure the temperature in a metal furnace. Other applications
are:
• Air conditioning and refrigeration servicing
• Food Processing
• Stoves and grills
• Textile production
• Plastics processing
• Petrochemical processing
• Micro electronics
• Air, gas and liquid temperature measurement in pipes and tanks
• Exhaust gas temperature measurement

3. Thermistors

Thermistors follow the principle of decrease in resistance with increasing

temperature. The material used in thermistor is generally a semiconductor
material such as a sintered metal oxide (mixtures of metal oxides, chromium,
cobalt, iron, manganese and nickel) or doped polycrystalline ceramic
containing barium titanate (BaTiO3) and other compounds. As the
temperature of semiconductor material increases the number of electrons
able to move about increases which results in more current in the material
and reduced resistance. Thermistors are rugged and small in dimensions.
They exhibit nonlinear response characteristics.
Thermistors are available in the form of a bead (pressed disc), probe or chip.
Figure 2.5.4 shows the construction of a bead type thermistor. It has a small
bead of dimension from 0.5 mm to 5 mm coated with ceramic or glass
material. The bead is connected to an electric circuit through two leads. To
protect from the environment, the leads are contained in a stainless steel
tube.

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Schematic of a thermistorApplications of Thermistors

• To monitor the coolant temperature and/or oil temperature inside the engine
• To monitor the temperature of an incubator
• Thermistors are used in modern digital thermostats
• To monitor the temperature of battery packs while charging
• To monitor temperature of hot ends of 3D printers
• To maintain correct temperature in the food handling and processing
industry equipments
• To control the operations of consumer appliances such as toasters, coffee
makers, refrigerators, freezers, hair dryers, etc.

4. Thermocouple

Thermocouple works on the fact that when a junction of dissimilar metals

heated, it produces an electric potential related to temperature. As per
Thomas Seebeck (1821), when two wires composed of dissimilar metals are
joined at both ends and one of the ends is heated, then there is a continuous
current which flows in the thermoelectric circuit. Figure 2.5.5 shows the
schematic of thermocouple circuit. The net open circuit voltage (the Seebeck
voltage) is a function of junction temperature and composition of two metals.
It is given by,
ΔVAB = α ΔT (2.5.2)
where α, the Seebeck coefficient, is the constant of proportionality.

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Schematic of thermocouple circuit

Generally, Chromel (90% nickel and 10% chromium)–Alumel (95% nickel,

2% manganese, 2% aluminium and 1% silicon) are used in the manufacture
of a thermocouple. Table 2.5.1 shows the various other materials, their
combinations and application temperature ranges.

Thermo couple material and Temperature range

Applications of Thermocouples
• To monitor temperatures and chemistry throughout the steel making
process

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• Testing temperatures associated with process plants e.g. chemical

production and petroleum refineries
• Testing of heating appliance safety
• Temperature profiling in ovens, furnaces and kilns
• Temperature measurement of gas turbine and engine exhausts
• Monitoring of temperatures throughout the production and smelting process
in the steel, iron and aluminum industry

Light sensors
A light sensor is a device that is used to detect light. There are different types
of light sensors such as photocell/photoresistor and photo diodes being used
in manufacturing and other industrial applications.
Photoresistor is also called as light dependent resistor (LDR). It has a resistor
whose resistance decreases with increasing incident light intensity. It is
made of a high resistance semiconductor material, cadmium sulfide (CdS).
The resistance of a CdS photoresistor varies inversely to the amount of light
incident upon it. Photoresistor follows the principle of photoconductivity
which results from the generation of mobile carriers when photons are
absorbed by the semiconductor material.
Figure 2.5.6 shows the construction of a photo resistor. The CdS resistor coil
is mounted on a ceramic substrate. This assembly is encapsulated by a resin
material. The sensitive coil electrodes are connected to the control system
though lead wires. On incidence of high intensity light on the electrodes, the
resistance of resistor coil decreases which will be used further to generate
the appropriate signal by the microprocessor via lead wires.

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Construction of a photo resistor

Photoresistors are used in science and in almost any branch of industry for
control, safety, amusement, sound reproduction, inspection and
measurement.
Applications of photo resistor
• Computers, wireless phones, and televisions, use ambient light sensors to
automatically control the brightness of a screen
• Barcode scanners used in retailer locations work using light sensor technology
• In space and robotics: for controlled and guided motions of vehicles and
robots. The light sensor enables a robot to detect light. Robots can be
programmed to have a specific reaction if a certain amount of light is
detected.
• Auto Flash for camera
• Industrial process control

Photo diodes
Photodiode is a solid-state device which converts incident light into an electric
current. It is made of Silicon. It consists of a shallow diffused p-n junction,

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normally a p-on-n configuration. When photons of energy greater than 1.1eV

(the bandgap of silicon) fall on the device, they are absorbed and electron-
hole pairs are created. The depth at which the photons are absorbed
depends upon their energy. The lower the energy of the photons, the deeper
they are absorbed. Then the electron-hole pairs drift apart. When the minority
carriers reach the junction, they are swept across by the electric field and an
electric current establishes
Photodiodes are one of the types of photodetector, which convert light into
either current or voltage. These are regular semiconductor diodes except
that they may be either exposed to detect vacuum UV or X-rays or packaged
with an opening or optical fiber connection to allow light to reach the sensitive
part of the device.

Construction of photo diode detector

Figure 2.5.7 shows the construction of Photo diode detector. It is constructed
from single crystal silicon wafers. It is a p-n junction device. The upper layer
is p layer. It is very thin and formed by thermal diffusion or ion implantation
of doping material such as boron. Depletion region is narrow and is
sandwiched between p layer and bulk n type layer of silicon. Light irradiates
at front surface, anode, while the back surface is cathode. The incidence of
light on anode generates a flow of electron across the p-n junction which is
the measure of light intensity.
Applications of photo diodes

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Camera: Light Meters, Automatic Shutter Control, Auto-focus, Photographic

Flash Control
Medical: CAT Scanners - X ray Detection, Pulse Oximeters, Blood Particle
Analyzers
Industry
• Bar Code Scanners
• Light Pens
• Brightness Controls
• Encoders
• Position Sensors
• Surveying Instruments
• Copiers - Density of Toner
Safety Equipment
• Smoke Detectors
• Flame Monitors
• Security Inspection Equipment - Airport X ray
• Intruder Alert - Security System
Automotive
• Headlight Dimmer
• Twilight Detectors
• Climate Control - Sunlight Detector
Communications
• Fiber Optic Links
• Optical Communications
• Optical Remote Control
Module-III
Signals, systems and Actuating Devices: Introduction to signals, systems and control system,
representation, linearization of nonlinear systems, time Delays, measures of system performance,
types of actuating devices selection. ;
SIGNAL:
• One can note that what is really being received through sensor and
what is being directed to the actuator is simply the ‘signal’.
• A signal is a time varying quantity conveying some information.
• The transducer output is simply the ‘signal’ and the actuator input is
also ‘signal’.
• Examples of signal include:
• Electrical signals
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– Voltages and currents in a circuit

• Acoustic signals
– Acoustic pressure (sound) over time
• Mechanical signals
– Velocity of a car over time
• Video signals
– Intensity level of a pixel (camera, video) over time
How is a Signal Represented?
• Mathematically, signals are represented as a function
of one or more independent variables.
f(t
• For instance a black & white video signal intensity is
dependent on x, y coordinates and time tf(x,y,t)
Types of Signals
t
• Periodicsignals: a signal is periodic if it repeats itself after a fixed
period T, i.E. X(t) = x(t+t) for all t. A sin(t) signal is periodic.

• Even and odd signals: a signal is even if x(-t) = x(t) (i.E. It can be
reflected in the axis at zero). A signal is odd if x(-t) = -x(t). Examples
are cos(t) and sin(t) signals, respectively.

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• Deterministic signal: completely predictable, can be a deterministic

function of the variables.
– E.g., sin(t)., cos(t)…
 Random signal: cannot predict the future values of the signal exactly;
evolves uncertainties. Can only be described with statistical observations,
the probability of the value at certain position.
– E.g., noise, vibration, stock market…

• Continuous-time signal
It defined in the continuous time period. It is a function of a continuous
independent variable. Note that the “continuous” refers to the variable
t. The amplitude could be either continuous or discontinuous.
• Digital signal
Digital signal is the signal that is both discrete in time, and quantized
in amplitude.
• Discrete-time signal
It defined only at a discrete set of values of independent variables. It
can be obtained by sampling the continuous signal. Digital signal
processing requires a discrete-time signal representation.

Why signal processing?

• A signal is composed is composed of many components.

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• Analysis that are being carried out is to know the amplitude,

frequency, and phase of the components either at a particular point
of time and/or in an interval.
• In order to take advantage of processing power of modern digital
processors or computers, it is necessary to convert the real world
analog signals in to an appropriate form, which can be stored and
processed by the use of digital systems and devices.
• Efficient make use of information, e.g. amplify or filter out
information, detect patterns, different domain information
• Better transmission and processing, e.g. distortions, prevent
interference
SYSTEM:
• A system (or plant) is a naturally occurring or man-made entity which
transforms cause(or inputs) into effects(or outputs).
• System behaviour can be modified by interactions with other systems.

• A cd player takes the signal on the cd and transforms it into a signal

sent to the loud speaker.
CONTROL SYSTEM:
A control system is a collection of components that is designed to drive
a given system (plant) with a given input to a desired output.
In a control system there is an interconnection between the constituent
components. These components may be electrical, mechanical,
hydraulic, pneumatic, etc.
• Modification of the behaviour of a system such that a desired
behaviour is achieved is called control.
• Controls are implemented by attaching a controller or compensator to
the plant. The resulting combined system is called a control system.

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