MNRUT309 Fundamentals of Instrument Technology Toc H Institute of Science and Technology

Module 2
Syllabus: Transducers and sensors: -Static and Dynamic Characteristics, Classification of
sensors, Robotic Sensors: Proximity sensor- Eddy current proximity sensor, Inductive
Proximity sensor, Capacitive Proximity sensor, Force Sensor, Piezoelectric Sensor, Tactile
sensor- Touch Sensor/Contact Sensor.

Text books/ References

[1]. Robotics Technology and flexible automation, S.R. Deb
[2]. Industrial Robots - Technology, Programming and Applications, Mikell P. Groover et. al
[3]. Introduction to Robotics, S K Saha

Transducers and Sensors [2]

A transducer is a device that converts one type of physical variable (e.g., force,
pressure, temperature, velocity, flow rate, etc.) into another form. A common conversion is to
electrical voltage, and the reason for making the conversion is that the converted signal is more
convenient to use and evaluate using a digital computer.
A sensor is a transducer that is used to make a measurement of a physical variable of
interest. Some of the common sensors and transducers include strain gauges (used to measure
force and pressure), thermocouples (temperatures), speedometers(velocity), and Pitot tubes
(flow rates).
Any sensor or transducer requires calibration in order to be useful as a measuring
device. Calibration is the procedure by which the relationship between the measured variable
and the converted output signal is established. The word “Transducer” is the collective term
used for both Sensors and Actuators, is shown in Fig. 1. Sensors can be used to sense a wide
range of different energy forms such as movement, electrical signals, radiant energy, thermal
or magnetic energy, etc. While actuators can be used to switch output states, voltages or
currents. Devices which perform an “Input” function are commonly called Sensors because
they “sense” a physical change in some characteristic which changes their response to some
form of external excitation. For example, heat or a force is converted into an electrical signal.
Devices which perform an “Output” function are generally called Actuators and can be used
to control some external action. For example, movement or sound.

Figure 1: Transducer

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Transducers and sensors can also be classified into two basic types depending on the form of
the converted signal. The two types are:
1. Analog transducers
Analog transducers provide a continuous analog signal such as electrical voltage or
current. This signal can then be interpreted as the value of the physical variable that is being
measured.
2. Digital transducers
Digital transducers produce a digital output signal, either in the form of a set of parallel
status bits or a series of pulses that can be counted. In either form, the digital signal represents
the value of the measured variable. They are more compatible with the digital computer than
analog-based sensors.
Table 1: Difference between transducer and sensor

Static and Dynamic Characteristics [2]

Static characteristics:

Some of the desirable engineering features of Sensors and transducers are:

1. Accuracy
The accuracy of the measurement should be as high as possible. Accuracy is interpreted to
mean that the true value of the variable can be sensed with no systematic positive or negative
errors in the measurement. Over many measurements of the variable, the average error between
the actual value and the sensed value will tend to be zero.
Measurement should reflect the true value with minimal error.

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2. Precision
The precision of the measurement should be as high as possible. Precision means that there
is little or no random variability in the measured variable. The dispersion in the values of a
series of measurements will be minimized. An associated definition is precision, which means
the ‘closeness of agreement’ between independent measurements of a quantity under the same
conditions without any reference to the true value, as done above.
It indicates repeatability and low random variability in measurement. It is defined as the
closeness of agreement under the same conditions. It is affected by the resolution of the
measuring device.

Difference between precision and accuracy

Figure 3: Difference between accuracy and precision

3. Reproducibility
The closeness of output readings for the same input when there are changes in the method
of measurement, observer, measuring instrument, location, conditions of use and time of
measurement.
4. Repeatability
The closeness of output readings, when the same input is applied repetitively over a short period
of time with the same measurement conditions, same instrument, and observer, same location,
and same conditions of use maintained throughout.

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5. Error
The algebraic difference between the true value At and the measured value Am of the
parameter measured by the sensor.
Error (e) = At- Am
6. Drift
Variations in environment conditions like ambient temperature, pressure etc affect the
output of the instrument and can be attributed to a general term called drift. No drift means
that with a given input the measured values dod not change with time. Many environment
factors cause drift.
Example: Stray electric and magnetic fields, thermal emfs, change in temperature,
mechanical vibrations, wear and tear, high mechanical stresses developed in some parts of
instruments and systems.
7. Operating range
The sensor should possess a wide operating range and should be accurate and precise over
the entire range.
8. Speed of response
The transducer should be capable of responding to changes in the sensed variable in
minimum time. ldeally, the response would be instantaneous.
9. Calibration
The sensor should be easy to calibrate. The time and trouble required to accomplish the
calibration procedure should be minimum, Further, the sensor should not require frequent
recalibration. The term drift' is commonly applied to denote the gradual loss in accuracy of the
sensor with time and use, and which would necessitate recalibration.
10. Reliability
The sensor should possess a high reliability, lt should not be subject to frequent failures
during operation.
11. Cost and ease of operation
The cost to purchase, instal, and operate the sensor should be as low as possible. Further,
the ideal circumstances would be that the installation and operation of the device would not
require a specially trained, highly skilled operator.
12. Hysteresis

It is defined as the change in the input/output curve when the direction of motion
changes, as indicated in Fig.2 below. This behavior is common in loose components such as
gears, which have backlash, and in magnetic devices with ferromagnetic media, and others.

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Fig.2: Hysteresis

Dynamic Characteristics
Dynamic characteristics of a sensor tell us how fast a transducer responds to the changes
in input. The reason for dynamic characteristics is the presence of energy-storing elements:
Inertial: masses, inductances, Capacitances: electrical, thermal. Dynamic characteristics are
determined by analyzing the response of the sensor to a family of variable input waveforms
shown in Fig.3.

Figure 3: Input waveforms

Dynamic characteristics describe how a sensor responds to time-varying input signals.

They are critical in applications where input conditions change rapidly.
1. Response Time
Response time is the time required for the sensor output to reach a specified percentage
(usually 90% or 95%) of its final steady-state value after a sudden change in input. Example:
A temperature sensor with a 2-second response time will take 2 seconds to display 90% of the
new temperature after a sudden temperature change.
2. Time Constant

The time constant (𝜏) is the time taken for the output to change by approximately 63.2%
of the total change in response to a step input. A smaller time constant means a faster response.
Example: A sensor with a time constant of 5ms will reach 63.2% of its final value in 5ms.
3. Lag
Lag is the delay in output response due to internal sensor mechanisms. It can be caused
by thermal inertia, electrical capacitance, or mechanical properties.
Example: A pressure sensor may take a few milliseconds to register a sudden pressure drop.
4. Fidelity

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Fidelity refers to the sensor’s ability to accurately reproduce the input signal without
distortion. A sensor with low fidelity may introduce unwanted changes, such as phase shifts or
amplitude distortions.
Example: A microphone with poor fidelity will not capture sound accurately.
5. Bandwidth

Bandwidth is the range of frequencies over which the sensor accurately responds. A
high-bandwidth sensor can measure rapidly changing signals.
Example: An accelerometer with a bandwidth of 1 kHz can detect vibrations up to 1,000 Hz.
6. Damping

Damping is the tendency of a sensor to resist oscillations and settle to its final value
quickly. Overdamped sensors respond slowly but without oscillations. Underdamped sensors
respond quickly but oscillate before stabilizing.
Example: A pressure sensor with high damping will avoid fluctuations but respond more
slowly.
7. Natural Frequency
The natural frequency is the frequency at which a sensor oscillates when disturbed from
its equilibrium state. If an input frequency approaches the natural frequency, resonance can
occur, leading to large oscillations and inaccurate measurements.
Example: A strain gauge used in vibration monitoring must have a natural frequency much
higher than the vibrations being measured.
a. Transfer function
The transfer function is a measure of the magnitude of the input signal and the magnitude of
the output signal.
b. Frequency response
It is the relationship between the frequency of the input signal and the magnitude of the
output signal.
c. Impulse response
The output of a sensor for a brief input signal, called an impulse, is called impulse response.

Desirable features of sensors

1. Accuracy: The accuracy of the measurement should be as high as possible. Accuracy is
interpreted to mean that the true value of the variable can be sensed with no systematic positive
or negative errors in the measurement.

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2. Precision: The precision of the measurement should be as high as possible. Precision means
that there is little or no random variability in the measured variable.
3. Operating range: The sensor should possess a wide operating range and should be accurate
and precise over the entire range.
4. Speed of response: The transducer should be capable of responding to changes in the sensed
variable in minimum time. Ideally, the response would be instantaneous.
5. Calibration: The sensor should be easy to calibrate. The time and trouble required to
accomplish the calibration procedure should be minimum. Further, the sensor should not
require frequent recalibration. The term ‘drift’ is commonly applied to denote the gradual loss
in accuracy of the sensor with time and use, and which would necessitate recalibration.
6. Reliability: The sensor should possess a high reliability. It should not be subject to frequent
failures during operation.

Classification of sensors [1, 2, 3]

There are many types of sensors used in a robotic system to make a robot more useful. The
better robotic performance depends on the intelligence of a robot. Basic types of sensors
are as follows:

Types of sensors based on their working are:

1. Active sensors 2. Passive sensors

Types of sensors based on their setup are:

1. Internal sensors 2. External sensors

Some other sensors are as follows:

1. Environment sensors
2. Position sensors
3. Velocity and acceleration sensors
4. Force sensors
5. Proximity sensors
6. Touch and slip sensors

The major capabilities required by a robot are as follows:

1. Simple Touch: The presence or absence of an object.
2. Taction or Complex Touch: The presence of an object plus some information about its
size and shape.
3. Simple Force: Measured force along a single axis.
4. Complex Force: Measured force along two or more axes.
5. Proximity: Non-contact detection of an object.
5. Simple Vision: Detection of edges. holes, corners etc.
6. Complex Vision: recognition of shapes.

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Based on the type of signals a sensor or transducer receives and processes it can be
classified as:
(i) Analog sensor: Continuous variation of output with variation in input. eg.
potentiometers, tacho generators, strain-gauge based sensors
(ii) Digital sensor: Output is digital or discrete in nature. eg. Encoders

Sensors can also be classified as:

(i) Internal Sensors: They are used to measure the internal state of the robot, i.e., its
position, velocity and acceleration. eg. position, velocity, acceleration, force sensors
(ii) External Sensors: They are primarily used to learn more about a robot’s environment.

External sensors can be divided into

(a) Contact Type Sensors eg. Limit Switch
(b) Non-Contact Type Sensors eg. Proximity Sensors

The classification of sensors is shown in Fig. 3.

Figure 3: Classification of sensors

Classification of Sensors
1. Internal and External sensors
Internal sensors: These are responsible for the internal working of the robot and are mainly
used for closing the loop in feedback control e.g., position sensors. A robot cannot function
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properly without these if it is using a closed loop feedback control system. The main internal
sensors are position and velocity sensors.
External sensors: These are responsible for interaction with the environment. A robot can use
external sensors like touch sensor for interaction with the environment. In case any of these
sensors fail the robot can still function but its ability to interact with the external world is
reduced. External sensors are of many different types depending on the kind of interaction with
the environment. The main external sensors are force/torque sensors, vision, touch, pressure
sensors, etc.
2. Active and Passive sensors.
Active Sensors: An active sensor is a sensor that requires an external power source. Active
sensors are also called parametric sensors because of the dependence of their output on changes
in sensor properties (parameters). Simple examples are sensors like strain gauges (resistance
changes as a function of strain), thermistors (resistance changes as a function of temperature),
capacitive or inductive proximity sensors (capacitance or inductance is a function of position),
and others. In all of these, the sensing function is a change in the device properties, but they
can only be used after a source is connected so that an electric signal can be modulated by the
respective property change.
Passive Sensors: Passive sensors operate by changing one or more of their own properties to
generate an electric signal. Passive sensors are sensors that do not require external power
sources. These are also called self-generating sensors. Examples are thermoelectric sensors,
solar cells, magnetic microphones, piezoelectric sensors etc.
3. Contact and Noncontact sensors
For example, strain gauges are contact sensors, but a proximity sensor is not. Same sensor may
sometimes be used in either mode (e.g., a thermistor measuring the temperature of an engine
is a contact sensor, but when measuring ambient temperature in the car it is not).

4. Absolute and Relative sensors

Sensors are sometimes classified as absolute or relative. An absolute sensor reacts to
a stimulus in reference to an absolute scale. An example is the thermistor. Its output is absolute
which means the resistance relates to the absolute temperature. Similarly, the capacitance
proximity sensor is an absolute sensor—its capacitance variations are due to the physical
distance to the sensing position. A relative sensor’s output depends on a relative scale. For
example, the output of a thermocouple depends on the temperature difference between two
junctions. The sensed (measured) quantity is the temperature difference rather than absolute
temperature.
Another example is the pressure sensor. All pressure sensors are relative sensors. When
the reference pressure is vacuum, the sensor is said to be absolute. A relative pressure sensor
senses the pressure difference between two pressures such as, that in the intake manifold of an
internal combustion engine and atmospheric pressure.
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6. Based on materials:
It is also common to classify sensors by materials used - semiconductor (silicon)
sensors, biological sensors, and the like.
7. Based on Physical size:
The physical size is sometimes used as a method of classification (miniature sensors,
microsensors, nano sensors, etc.). Many of these qualifications are relative and depend on
the application area.
Eg. A ‘‘miniature’’ sensor in an automobile may not be on the same scale as a miniature sensor
in a laptop computer or cell phone. For example, the airbag deploying system uses
accelerometers, as do cell phones to orient the display when the phone is flipped. Likely the
two sensors will be on a vastly different scale in size.
Table 2: Sensor devices and its functions

Sl Sensor devices Function

No.
1 Ammeter Electrical meter used to measure electrical current.
2 Eddy current detector Device that emits an alternating magnetic field at the tip of a
(proximity sensor) probe. which induces eddy currents in any conductive object
in the range of the device. Can be used to indicate presence or
absence of a conductive object.
3 Electrical contact Device in which an electrical potential is established between
switch (touch sensor) two objects, and when the potential becomes zero, this
indicates contact between the two objects. Not a commercial
device. Can be used to indicate presence or absence of a
conductive object.
4 Infrared sensor Transducer which measures temperatures by the infrared
(proximity sensor) light emitted from the surface of an object. Can be used to
indicate presence or absence of a hot object.
5 Limit switch (touch Electrical on-off switch actuated by depressing a mechanical
sensor) lever or button on the device. Can be used to measure presence
or absence of an object.
6 Linear variable Electromechanical transducer used to measure linear or
differential angular displacement.
transformer (LVDT)
7 Microswitch (touch Small electrical limit switch Can be used to indicate presence
sensor) or absence of an object.
8 Ohmmeter Meter used to measure electrical resistance.
9 Optical pyrometer Device used to measure high temperatures by sensing the
(proximity sensor, brightness of an object's surface. Can be used to indicate
miscellaneous) presence or absence of a hot object.
10 Photometric sensors Various transducers used to sense light. Category includes
(proximity sensor, photocells, photoelectric transducers, phototubes,
miscellaneous) photodiodes. phototransistors, and photoconductors. Can be
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used to indicate presence or absence of an object.

11 Piezoelectric Sensor used to indicate or measure vibration.
accelerometer
12 Potentiometer Electrical meter used to measure voltage.
13 Pressure transducers Various transducers used to indicate air pressure and other
fluid pressures.
14 Radiation pyrometer Device used to measure high temperatures by sensing the
(proximity sensor, thermal radiation emitting from the surface of an object. Can
miscellaneous) be used to indicate presence or absence of a hot object.

15 Strain gauge (force Common transducer used to measure force, torque, pressure
sensor) and other related variables. Can be used to indicate force
applied to grasp an object.
16 Thermistor Device based on electrical resistance used to measure
temperatures.
17 Thermocouple Commonly used device used to measure temperatures Based
on the physical principle that a junction of two dissimilar
metals will emit an emf which can n be related to temperature.
18 Vacuum switches Device used to indicate negative air pressures. Can be used
(proximity sensor, with a vacuum gripper to indicate presence or absence of an
miscellaneous) object.
19 Vision sensors Advanced sensor system used in conjunction with pattern
recognition and other techniques to view and interpret events
occurring in the robot workplace
20 Voice sensors (voice Advanced sensor system used to communicate commands or
and speed information orally to the robot.
recognition)

External Sensors

External sensors are primarily used to learn more about the robot’s environment, especially the
objects being manipulated. External sensors are divided into the following categories:
1. Non- Contact Type
2. Contact Types

Non-Contact Type [3]

Non-contact sensors do not require physical contact eg. Proximity Sensor, Vision Sensor

Proximity Sensor
Proximity sensing is the technique of detecting the presence or absence of an object
with an electronic non-contact type sensor. Proximity Sensor includes all sensors that perform
non-contact detection in comparison to sensors, such as limit switches, that detect objects by

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physically contacting them. Proximity Sensors convert information on the movement or presence of
an object into an electrical signal. There are three types of detection systems that do this conversion:
▪ Systems that use the eddy currents that are generated in metallic sensing objects by
electromagnetic induction,
▪ Systems that detect changes in electrical capacity when approaching the sensing object,
▪ Systems that use magnets and reed switches
Proximity sensors are of three types:
(a) Eddy current proximity sensors
(b) Inductive proximity sensors – are used instead of limit switches for sensing metallic
objects
(c) Capacitive proximity sensors – are used instead of limit switches for sensing
metallic and non-metallic objects.

a) Eddy current proximity sensors

Eddy current proximity sensors are used to detect non-magnetic but conductive
materials; it is shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4: Eddy current proximity sensor

Working

When an alternating current is passed through this coil, an alternative magnetic field
is generated. If a metal object comes in the close proximity of the coil, then eddy currents
are induced in the object due to the magnetic field. These eddy currents create their own
magnetic field which distorts the magnetic field responsible for their generation. As a result,
impedance of the coil changes and so the amplitude of alternating current. This can be used
to trigger a switch at some predetermined level of change in current.

Figure 5: Working of Eddy current proximity sensor

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Eddy currents can be used to measure the minute changes that happen in big machines.
They can detect any change in shape, and hence can be used as a cautious system to prevent
any major accidents on big sites from happening. Eddy current sensors consist of a
conductor through which an alternating electric field is flowing, and because of this, the
magnet develops a magnetic field of its own. When a metal is brought around the current-
carrying conductor, the metal gets induced with current, known as eddy currents.
Eddy current is induced in a conductive metal due to change in magnetic field. This
current flows in closed loop, and its direction is perpendicular to magnetic field. This
conductor, having developed an induced current, now has a magnetic field of its own which
opposes the magnetic field of the current producing it. This relation is used in many
machines. If there is a change in the flux noted, then the machine is checked for any flaws.
Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction: A changing magnetic field can induce an
electromotive force (EMF) or voltage in a nearby circuit.

Applications of eddy current proximity sensors:

▪ Automation requiring precise location
▪ Machine tool monitoring
▪ Final assembly of precision equipment such as disk drives
▪ Measuring the dynamics of a continuously moving target, such as a vibrating
element,
▪ Drive shaft monitoring
▪ Vibration measurements

b) Inductive Proximity Sensor

Inductive proximity sensors use electromagnetic field to detect the presence of metallic
objects within their sensing range. It uses the principle of electromagnetic induction. They
work by generating an alternating magnetic field from a coil and detecting changes in that field
when a conductive object enters its range.

Fig. 6: Inductive proximity sensor

All inductive proximity sensors consist of four basic elements, namely, the following:
▪ Sensor coil and ferrite core
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▪ Oscillator circuit
▪ Detector circuit
▪ Solid-state output circuit
▪ Housing and terminals
1. Inductor/Coil
• The coil or Inductor is the primary sensing element.
• It generates EM field when a current is passed through it.
• This inductor is connected to Oscillator circuit
2. Oscillator Circuit
• It generates current that powers the coil or inductor.
• When a current applied to inductor, it creates a EM field that extend outward from
sensors active face – sensing area
3. Detection Circuit
• The oscillator and coil connected to detection circuit.
• This circuit detect the change in EM field, produced by the coil.
• When the metallic object enters the sensors range, it disrupts the EM field, causing
changes in the sensor’s output.

Fig. 7: Detection circuit in Inductive proximity sensor

4. Output Circuit
• Detection circuit then triggers the output circuit
• It performs various actions like turning on indicator light, sending a signal to control
system
5. Housing and terminals
• Housing is the outer cover of sensor. It protects the circuit inside from dust, moisture,
and physical damage.
• Terminal/connector –through which the sensor transmit signal to control system such
as PLC or relay
• As the target leaves the sensing field, the oscillator responds with an increase in
amplitude. As the amplitude increases above a specific value, it is detected by the
detector circuit, which is ‘switched off’ causing the output signal to return to the
normal or ‘off’ state.
As shown in Fig. 6, the oscillator circuit generates a radio-frequency electromagnetic
field. The field is centered around the axis of the ferrite core, which shapes the field and
directs it at the sensor face. When a metal target approaches the face and enters the field,
eddy currents are induced into the surface of the target. This results in a loading or
damping effect that causes a reduction in amplitude of the oscillator signal. The detector
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circuit detects the change in the oscillator amplitude. The detector circuit will ‘switch
on’ at specific operating amplitude. This signal ‘turns on’ the solid-state output circuit.
This is often referred to as damped condition. As the target leaves the sensing field, the
oscillator responds with an increase in amplitude. As the amplitude increases above a
specific value, it is detected by the detector circuit, which is ‘switched off’ causing the
output signal to return to the normal or ‘off’ state.
The sensing range of an inductive proximity sensor refers to the distance between
the sensor face and the target. It also indicates the shape of the sensing field generated
through the coil and the core. There are several mechanical and environmental factors
that affect the sensing range. The usual range is up to 10–15 mm but some sensors have
ranges as high as 100 mm.

Inductive proximity sensor is used for specific applications in industries.

1. Detecting the presence of metal cans
2 Monitoring the revolution of metallic gear
3. Counting the metal parts moving over a conveyor
4. Industrial automation: counting of products during production or transfer
5. Security: detection of metal objects, arms, land mines

c) Capacitive Proximity Sensor

A capacitive proximity sensor operates much like an inductive proximity sensor.
However, the means of sensing is considerably different. Capacitive sensing is based on
dielectric capacitance. Capacitance is the property of insulators to store the charge. A
capacitor consists of two plates separated by an insulator, usually called a dielectric. When
the switch is closed, a charge is stored on the two plates. The distance between the plates
determines the ability of the capacitor to store the charge and can be calibrated as a function
of stored charge to determine discrete ON and OFF switching status.
• It works by detecting changes in capacitance, which is the ability of an object to
store an electric charge.
• It can use to sense metals, non-metals, and all type of materials

Fig. 8: Capacitive proximity sensor

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Fig. 9: Block diagram of Capacitive proximity sensor

1. Capacitive Plate
• Two conductive plates, close to each other but not touching.
• It is connected to control unit.
2. Control Unit
• Brain of the circuit.
• It controls the flow of electricity to the capacitive plate.
• When the electrical current is applied to these plates, they create an electric
field between them.
• This electric field extends beyond the surface of the sensor.

Fig. 10: Sensing in Capacitive proximity sensor

3. Detection Circuit
• It is like the eyes of the sensor.
• It constantly measures the strength of the electric field between the plates.
• When there are no objects nearby, the electric field between the plates remains
stable, and the sensor measures the baseline capacitive value.
• When an object gets close, it will disturb the field, and the detection circuit
notices the change.

4. Output Circuit
• Based on the detected capacitance change, the output circuit generates output
signal.
• This signal indicates the presence or absence of an object.
• It performs various actions like turning on indicator light, sending a signal to
control system
5. Housing and terminals
• Housing is the outer cover of sensor. It protect the circuit inside from dust,
moisture, and physical damage.

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Major characteristics of the capacitive proximity sensors are as follows:

▪ They can detect non-metallic targets.
▪ They can detect lightweight or small objects that cannot be detected by
mechanical limit switches.
▪ They provide a high switching rate for rapid response in object counting applications.
▪ They can detect limit targets through non-metallic barriers (glass, plastics, etc.).
▪ They have long operational life with a virtually unlimited number of operating cycles.
▪ The solid-state output provides a bounce-free contact signal.

Capacitive proximity sensors have two major limitations:

i. The sensors are affected by moisture and humidity
ii. They must have extended range for effective sensing.

Capacitive proximity sensors have a greater sensing range than inductive proximity
sensors. Sensing distance for capacitive switches is a matter of plate area, as coil size is for
inductive proximity sensors. Capacitive sensors basically measure a dielectric gap.
Accordingly, it is desirable to be able to compensate for the target and application
conditions with a sensitivity adjustment for the sensing range. Most capacitive proximity
sensors are equipped with a sensitivity adjustment potentiometer.

2. Contact Type

Contact sensors rely on physical contact with an object. eg. Contact switch, Tactile Sensor

(i) Contact Switch (Limit Switch) [3]

The construction of the limit switch is similar to the ordinary light switches used in homes
and offices and they have the same on/off characteristics. The limit switch usually has a
pressure sensitive mechanical arm. When an object applies pressure on the mechanical arm the
switch is energised. An object may have an attached magnet that causes a contact to rise and
close when the object passes over the arm. As shown in Fig. 11(b), the pull-up resistor keeps
the signal at +V. When the switch closes, the signal is connected to ground.

Figure 11: Limit switch

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Limit switches can be Normally Open (NO) or Normally Closed (NC). A NO switch makes
continuity when pressure is applied. Limit switches may have multiple poles. A single-pole
switch causes one circuit to be opened or closed on contact, while a muti-pole switch allows
multiple circuits to be opened or closed.

Limit switches are mechanical devices and have the following problems:
• They are subject to mechanical failure
• Their mean time between failures is lower than no-contact sensors
• Their speed of operation is slower than that of photoelectric micro-sensors which are up to
3000 times faster
Limit switches are used in robots to detect extreme positions of motions. When the link
reaches an extreme position limit switches are used to switch off the corresponding actuator,
thus safe guarding from any possible damage to the robot arm.

Force Sensors
The capacity to measure forces permits the robot to perform a number of tasks like
• Grasping parts of different sizes in material handling,
• Machine loading, and
• Assembly work, by applying the appropriate level of force for the given part
Force being a vector quantity must be specified both in magnitude and direction.
The different types of force sensors are
a) Strain gauge sensor
b) Piezoelectric sensor
c) Tactile sensor

a) Strain Gauge Sensor

A resistor used to measure strain on an object. When an external force is applied there is a
deformation in the shape of the object. This deformation is both compressive or tensile, is called
strain and is measured by strain gauge. It is sensitive to the small changes occur in the geometry
of an object. By measuring the change in resistance of an object, the amount of induced stress
can be calculated. When an object shows physical deformation, its electrical resistance gets
change and that change is measured by gauge.

Fig. 12: Strain Gauge

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The change in resistance is small and is measured using a Wheatstone bridge. A Wheatstone
bridge has 4 arms with one resistor on each arm. A resistor in one of the arms is replaced with
a strain gauge.

Fig. 13: Working of Wheatstone bridge

R1 and R3 are the ratio arms equal to each other. R2 is the rheostat arm has a value equal to
the strain gauge resistance. When the gauge is unstrained, the bridge is balanced, and voltmeter
shows zero value. As there is a change in resistance, the bridge gets unbalanced and producing
an indication at the voltmeter.

b) Piezoelectric Sensor
Piezoelectric sensors are devices that transform mechanical energy (such as pressure, force, or
vibration) into electrical energy. It is based on the piezoelectric effect, a phenomenon in which
some materials generate an electric charge when deformed.

Fig: 14: Piezoelectric sensor

Since “piezo” means “press” or “squeeze” in Greek, a piezoelectric sensor monitors

compression via the piezoelectric phenomenon. A Piezoelectric Sensor does not require an
external voltage or current source; it may generate an output signal based on the strain
exerted.
Piezoelectricity (also called the piezoelectric effect) is the presence of an electrical potential
across the sides of a crystal when mechanical stress is applied by squeezing it.

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Fig: 15: Piezoelectric sensor

Most widely used piezoelectric crystals are

• PZT (Lead Zirconate Titanate),
• Quartz,
• Barium titanate,
• PVDF (Polyvinylidene Fluoride)
Examples:
• Mechanical stress analyzer: During the construction of building, stress analyzer is used
for columns, where the voltage produced due to stress is measured, and corresponding
stress is calculated.
• Lighters: Gas Burner lighter and cigarette lighter utilizes piezoelectric effect. They
produce electric pulse due to force developed by sudden impact of trigger over the
material inside.

Inverse Piezo electric effect

The effect is reversible. Whenever an electric field is applied onto crystal terminals, it
undergoes mechanical stress and results in shape change. This is known as Inverse Piezoelectric
Effect.
Examples:
• Quartz Watch: Quartz resonator that work as an oscillator. When an electric signal is
applied across the crystal, the crystal vibrates which helps to regulate the gear inside
the watch periodically.
• Piezo Buzzers: In many applications like car reverse indicator, computers, etc. buzzers
are used. A certain amount of voltage with a value of magnitude and frequency is
applied on the crystal, which makes the crystal to vibrate. The vibration is converted
into sound.

Working of Piezoelectric sensor

When pressure or acceleration is applied to the PZT (Lead Zirconate Titanate) material, an
equivalent amount of electrical charge gets generated across the crystal faces. Electrical charge
will be proportional to the applied pressure. Piezoelectric sensor cannot be used to measure
static pressure. At the constant pressure, the output signal will be zero.

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1. In a piezoelectric crystal the charges are exactly balanced in an unsymmetrical arrangement

also.
2. The effect of the charges cancels out with each other, and hence no net charge will be found
on the crystal faces.
3. When the crystal is squeezed, the charge in the crystal becomes unbalanced.
4. Therefore, by squeezing the crystal, voltage is produced across the opposite face, and this is
known as piezoelectricity.

Fig: 16: Working of Piezoelectric sensor

Characteristics of Piezoelectric Sensors

Piezoelectric sensors are durable, lightweight, and made of flexible plastic, allowing them
to be manufactured in a variety of sizes, shapes, and thicknesses.
1. High strength: They can endure high pressures without permanent deformation.
2. High Voltage Output: Minor impacts produce big electrical signals.
3. Wide Frequency Range: Suitable for monitoring vibrations from low to high frequencies.
4. Impact resistance: Can withstand mechanical shock.
5. High mechanical strength: Able to withstand high physical conditions.
6. High Stability: Ensures steady performance throughout time with low signal drift.

Advantages:

• High Sensitivity – Detects even small forces or vibrations.

• Fast Response Time – Reacts to changes almost instantly.
• Compact Size – Enables integration into small robotic structures.
• Low Power Consumption – Operates without requiring an external power source for
sensing.
• Durability – Resistant to wear and tear, making them ideal for long-term use.

Applications:

1. Force and Tactile Sensing

• Used in robotic grippers to measure the force exerted on objects.
• Integrated into artificial skin for humanoid robots.
2. Vibration and Impact Detection
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• Used in collision detection systems to detect unintended impacts.

• Helps in structural health monitoring of robotic arms and frames.
3. Motion and Acceleration Sensing
• Used in robotic navigation for precise movement tracking.
• Applied in inertial measurement units (IMUs) for stabilization.
4. Energy Harvesting
• Piezoelectric materials in robots can harvest mechanical energy from vibrations or
movement, contributing to self-powered sensors.

c) Tactile Sensors [1,2]

Tactile sensors are devices which indicate contact between themselves and other solid
object. Tactile sensing devices can be divided into two classes:
a) Touch sensors: - Touch sensors provide a binary output signal which indicates
whether or not contact has been made with the object
b) Force sensors: - Force sensors (also sometimes called stress sensors) indicate not
only that contact has been made with the object but also the magnitude of the contact
force between the two objects.
Tactile sensors are used in robotics, computer hardware and security systems. A common
application of tactile sensors is in touchscreen devices on mobile phones and computing.

Working of Tactile Sensors

The polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) film is sensitive to deformation. The lower film is
driven with an AC signal and therefore it contracts and expands mechanically and periodically.
This deformation is transferred to the upper film through the compression layer. When the
upper film is deformed by a force, its signal changes from normal and the amplitude and/or
phase of the output signal is now a measure of deformation (force).

Fig: 17: Piezoelectric Film tactile sensor

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Fig: 18: Tactile sensor

Another example is shown in Figure(b). In this case the output is normally zero. When a
force is applied, the strain in the film gives rise to an output proportional to stress (force) and
changing with the force. Because of this the output can be used to sense not only force, but also
variations in force. This idea has been used to sense minute changes due to breathing patterns
in babies, primarily in hospitals, but it can be used to sense under other conditions. In a sensor
of this type, a sheet of PVDF is placed under the patient and its output is monitored for an
expected pattern in the signal as the center of gravity of the body shifts with breathing.

Fig: 19: Piezoelectric film sensor for detecting sliding motion

There are three main types of tactile technology-resistive, capacitive and optical.

i) Resistive tactile sensors

Resistive devices are the most popular tactile sensors at present, because of their higher
sensitivity and x-y resolution. They can be based on a variety of resistive compounds such as
carbon fibres, conductive rubbers and various specially developed media impregnated with
conductive dopants. Although they all exhibit the required property of a change in resistance
in response to an applied pressure, the last category has achieved the highest popularity because
of its lower hysteresis and larger dynamic range. Fig. 20 (a) shows the robot gripper fitted with
tactile pads and Fig. 20 (b) represents the principle of operation of tactile sensor.

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Figure 20: (a) Robot gripper, (b) Operation of tactile sensor

ii) Capacitive tactile sensors

The principle of operation of each tactile is predictably the same as that of a capacitive force
transducer. The capacitance of each tactile varies based on the applied force.

Figure 21: Side view of tactile sensor based on capacitive tactiles array

a) Touch Sensors
Touch sensors are used to indicate that contact has been made between two objects without
regard to the magnitude of the contacting force. Included within the category are simple devices
such as limit switches, microswitches, etc. A touch sensor is a type of device that captures and
records physical touch or embrace on a device and/or object. It enables a device or object to
detect touch or near proximity, typically by a human user or operator. A touch sensor primarily
works when an object or individual gets in physical contact with it. Touch sensors are also
called as tactile sensors and are sensitive to touch, force or pressure. It can be implemented
using Capacitive or Resistive sensing technology.
There are two common types of touch sensors: capacitive touch sensors and resistive touch
sensors.

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Capacitive Touch Sensors

Figure 22: Tracking electrostatic field

It’s called capacitive because the technology is based on capacitive coupling that detects
anything that is conductive or has a dielectric different from air. In this case, the human body
(fingers) is being used as an electrical charge conductor. The way it locates where your finger
is on the screen is the change of local electrostatic field when your finger touches the glass of
the capacitive surface. An image processing controller continuously monitors the electrostatic
field (or the movement of each tiny capacitor) to find where exactly the finger touched the
screen. Figure 22, shows how it tracks the electrostatic field.

Resistive Touch Sensors

The other type of touch screen/sensor is resistive. Unlike capacitive touch sensors which
have a glass layer only, resistive touch sensors have several layers, where the two main layers
are the flexible plastic and glass layer. The front surface has a flexible scratch-resistant plastic
with a coating of conductive material (usually Indium Tin Oxide) on the underside. The second
layer is also coated with ITO and is made of either glass or hard plastic. When a finger (or a
stylus) presses down on the flexible plastic, it contacts the second layer and measures the
resistance of both the layers at wherever the point of contact was. Figure 23, shows a diagram
of working of resistive touch sensors.

Figure 23: Working of Resistive touch sensors

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