MET413 ADVANCED METHODS IN NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING

MODULE 4

Phased Array Ultrasonic Testing (PAUT)

1. Introduction
Phased Array Ultrasonic Testing (PAUT) is a sophisticated non-destructive testing
(NDT) technique widely employed in industrial applications for detecting material
flaws, measuring thickness, and inspecting welds. Unlike conventional ultrasonic
testing, PAUT uses a series of small ultrasonic transducers—known as elements—
arranged within a single probe. Each element is independently controlled, allowing the
ultrasonic beam to be electronically focused and steered without needing physical
movement. This ability facilitates a more detailed and flexible inspection,
accommodating a variety of materials and structural requirements.
2. Principle
PAUT operates based on three key principles: multiple elements, phasing, and wave
interference.
o Multiple Elements: The probe contains several small piezoelectric elements,
each capable of independently transmitting and receiving ultrasonic waves. This
independence allows precise control over the ultrasonic wave patterns emitted.
o Phasing: Phased control over the timing at which each element emits its wave
enables the creation of a focused, directed beam. Electronic phasing allows fine
adjustments to the beam’s focus and angle, optimizing it for each inspection’s
specific requirements.
o Wave Interference: Through careful control of each element’s wave timing,
PAUT uses interference to focus the beam. When waves from various elements
intersect, they can either amplify each other (constructive interference) or cancel
each other out (destructive interference). This process allows the beam to be
directed at specific angles and depths.

3. Working Mechanism
o Time Delays: By applying precise time delays to each element, PAUT creates
constructive interference, combining individual waves into a single, focused
beam. These delays allow the beam to be directed and adjusted for accurate
targeting within the material.
o Beam Steering: With electronic control, PAUT can sweep the beam across the
material without moving the probe, similar to adjusting a flashlight beam
 without shifting one’s hand. This feature enables efficient, thorough scanning
of the material.
o Focusing: The phased array system can focus the beam at specific depths and
angles, allowing it to inspect various layers of material. This focusing ability
enhances flaw detection and provides flexibility in evaluating materials with
different thicknesses and compositions.
o Imaging: The combination of directed beam movement and detected echoes
generates a real-time cross-sectional image of the material’s internal structure.
This image allows for precise visualization, helping identify flaws, thickness
variations, and other internal features critical to assessing the object’s integrity.

Phased Array Probes

1. Linear Array Probes

Linear array probes consist of multiple piezoelectric elements aligned along a single
axis. This configuration allows the ultrasonic beam to be moved, focused, and
deflected across a single plane, making them well-suited for 2D inspections along a
single axis.

2. Annular Array Probes

Annular array probes are composed of concentric rings of elements. This arrangement
enables the ultrasonic beam to focus at varying depths along a single axis, allowing
for greater control when inspecting materials with differing layer depths or specific
areas of interest.
 3. Circular Array Probes
Circular array probes feature elements arranged in a circular pattern. These elements
can be directed either inward, outward, or along the circle’s axis of symmetry. This
configuration provides flexibility in beam direction and is useful for inspections that
require circumferential scanning.

4. Matrix Array Probes

Matrix array probes have an active area divided into a two-dimensional grid of
elements, often resembling a checkerboard or sectored rings. This 2D division allows
for three-dimensional beam control through electronic focusing and deflection,
enabling advanced 3D imaging capabilities ideal for complex inspections.

Focal Law: The focal law is a set of calculations used to control the time delays for each
element, determining how the ultrasonic beam is focused and steered. It allows for:

• Steering the Beam: Changing the beam’s direction by adjusting time delays.
• Depth Focusing: Focusing the beam at specific depths within the material.
• Constructive Interference: Amplifying the ultrasonic signal by synchronizing the
wave phases.
Types of Scanning in Phased Array Ultrasonic Testing (PAUT)

1. Linear Scan:

• How it Works: In a linear scan, the probe doesn't need to move. The ultrasonic waves
are electronically swept along the length of the probe, creating a cross-sectional profile
of the material being inspected.
• Real-Time View: This scanning happens in real-time, meaning you can see a live view
of the cross-section as the probe moves.
• Applications: Useful for creating detailed images of the material’s interior without
moving the transducer, often used for weld inspection.

2. Fixed Angle Linear Scan:

• Purpose: This scan is helpful for inspecting welds. A phased array probe with multiple
elements generates waves at a fixed angle (usually 45, 60, or 70 degrees).
• How it Works: The waves are sequenced through the length of the probe, allowing for
full inspection of the weld without moving the probe sideways. This enables a one-time
scan along the weld length.
• Advantages: This method speeds up the inspection process for welds, collecting full
data in one pass.

3. Sectorial Scan:

• How it Works: Unlike the linear scan, the sectorial scan uses a fixed point (aperture)
on the probe and sweeps through a range of angles. This means the ultrasonic beam
inspects the material at multiple angles in one scan.
 • Cross-Sectional View: Like the linear scan, it provides a cross-sectional image of the
test piece.
• Common Use: Sectorial scans are the most popular type of scan in phased array testing
because they can inspect the material from different angles, giving a more complete
view.

4. C-Scan:

• What it Shows: A C-scan gives a 2D image of the material, showing a top-down view
(planar view).
• How it Works: While the probe moves along one axis, the ultrasonic beam scans along
the other axis electronically.
• Applications: Used when you need to see a broad, flat view of the material, like
checking for surface defects or thickness.

Significance of Wedges in Phased Array Inspection

Wedges are essential components in phased array ultrasonic testing (PAUT) as they allow the
ultrasonic beam to enter the material at specific angles, enhancing inspection accuracy and
adaptability. Here’s how they contribute:

1. Angle Adjustment
o Wedges are designed to create specific refracted angles in the test material. This
is particularly useful for angled inspections, such as weld testing, where defects
might not be perpendicular to the surface.
2. Beam Steering
 o The wedge enables controlled beam steering by changing the angle at which the
sound enters the material. This allows phased array probes to perform sectorial
or linear scanning without repositioning the probe.
3. Mode Conversion Control
o By using specific wedge designs, mode conversions (between longitudinal and
shear waves) can be controlled. Wedges allow for the selection of the desired
wave mode, optimizing penetration depth and resolution based on the inspection
requirements.
4. Surface Adaptation
o Wedges adapt to various surface shapes (flat, curved, or angled), ensuring
consistent contact between the probe and the test material. This contact reduces
signal loss, improving data accuracy.
5. Reducing Surface Noise
o Wedges minimize surface noise by creating a buffer between the probe and the
material, allowing cleaner signals by reducing unwanted surface reflections.

Time of Flight Diffraction (TOFD)

1. Introduction
Time of Flight Diffraction (TOFD) is an advanced ultrasonic testing method used
predominantly to detect and measure cracks or other defects within materials. Unlike
conventional ultrasonic testing, which evaluates defect location based on the amplitude
of the reflected wave, TOFD calculates the precise time taken by an ultrasonic wave to
travel through the material and return after encountering a flaw. This time-based
approach, called the "time of flight," enhances accuracy in locating and sizing defects.
2. Principle
TOFD operates on the principle of wave diffraction, using it to detect and size cracks
accurately.
o Diffraction of Waves: TOFD capitalizes on the phenomenon where ultrasonic
waves bend or spread upon encountering an obstacle, such as a crack tip.
o Crack Detection: When the ultrasonic wave strikes a crack, it generates
diffracted waves from the crack tips. These waves carry information that helps
determine the size and depth of the crack.
o Accurate Sizing: By measuring the time of flight of these diffracted waves and
applying trigonometry, the depth and precise dimensions of the flaw can be
calculated.
 3. Working Mechanism
o Probe Setup: TOFD utilizes two probes—one transmitter and one receiver—
placed on either side of the material or weld to be inspected.
▪ Transmitter Probe: Emits an ultrasonic pulse.
▪ Receiver Probe: Positioned on the opposite side, this probe captures the
signal after it passes through the material.
o Signal Detection: In flawless material, the receiver detects two primary signals:
one that travels along the surface and another that reflects off the back wall.
When a crack or defect is present, the ultrasonic wave interacts with the crack
tip, generating a diffracted wave that the receiver detects. This diffracted wave
provides critical information about the defect.

4. TOFD in Crack Detection

o Time Measurement: The time taken for the diffracted wave to reach the
receiver is carefully measured, enabling determination of the crack's location
and size.
o Trigonometry for Depth: The known probe positions and the time of flight of
the diffracted wave are used to calculate the crack’s depth through trigonometry,
providing highly accurate depth information.

Advantages of TOFD

• Accurate Crack Sizing: TOFD provides high precision in measuring crack

dimensions, especially their depth.
• Fast Inspection: TOFD’s configuration enables it to inspect large areas quickly,
making it suitable for extensive applications such as pipeline inspections.
• Reduced Dependence on Crack Orientation: TOFD can detect cracks accurately
without requiring the flaw to have a specific orientation, enhancing reliability in diverse
inspection scenarios.

Time of Flight Diffraction (TOFD) Setup and Data Acquisition

TOFD Setup

• The setup involves two probes: one acting as a transmitter and the other as a receiver,
symmetrically placed on either side of the weld.
Data Acquisition and Interpretation

• The receiver captures four types of signals:

1. Lateral Wave (LW)
2. Back Wall Signal (BW)
3. Mode Converted Shear Wave Signal
4. Diffracted Signals from Defects

Lateral Wave

• A near-surface longitudinal wave generated from the wide beam of the transducer.
• It is not a surface wave and travels the path of least time/distance between the two
probes.
• The frequency of lateral waves tends to be lower than that of waves at the center,
resulting in wider beam spread.
• Due to being weak waves, the amplitude of lateral waves decays exponentially with
distance, and they may disappear over long probe separations.
• For curved surfaces, the lateral wave travels directly between the two probes.

Back Wall Signal

• A strong longitudinal wave reflected from the back wall of the material.
• It is observed after the lateral wave due to its longer travel distance.

Diffracted Wave (Defect Signal)

• If a defect (such as a crack) is present, diffraction occurs at the top and bottom tips of
the defect.
• These diffracted signals are seen between the lateral wave and the back wall signal and
are weaker than the back wall signal but stronger than the lateral wave.

Mode Converted Shear Signals

• These appear after the back wall signal and are typically larger.
• Mode converted signals take a longer time to reach the receiver due to their nature.

Equipment and Parameter Selection

Probe Selection

• Low-frequency and small diameter probes provide wider beam coverage but reduce
test sensitivity.
• High-frequency probes offer better sensitivity and resolution but compromise on
beam coverage.

Beam Spread

• Wider beam spread allows larger volume coverage of the test material.
• High-damped and broadband probes are typically used in TOFD to maximize
coverage.
Probe Frequency

• Higher frequency results in better resolution but may cause attenuation and reduced
beam coverage.

Probe Angle

• The choice of probe angle depends on:

o Material thickness
o Component geometry
o Technique and scan plan (whether single or multiple passes are used)
• A 70-degree probe provides wider coverage but less time spread and poorer resolution.
• A 45-degree probe offers maximum time spread and better resolution but smaller
coverage.
• A 60-degree probe is often preferred due to its balanced coverage and time spread.

Probe-Center Separation (PCS)

• Definition: Probe-Center Separation (PCS) is the distance between the index points of
the transmitter and receiver probes in a TOFD setup. For curved objects, PCS is
measured as the shortest distance between these points.
• Focusing Point: PCS is generally determined based on the focusing point within the
material under examination, often a weld. It directly affects the focus depth, which is
essential for achieving accurate detection.
• Dependence on Depth and Angle: PCS varies depending on the desired focus depth
and the angle of the probes. Adjustments to PCS help tailor the inspection to the
material's thickness and the inspection requirements.
• Effect on Focus and Coverage: Changes in PCS impact both the focus and the volume
coverage:
o Increased PCS: Expanding PCS leads to greater weld coverage, enhancing the
ability to inspect a larger area of the material if all other parameters remain
constant.
 o Decreased PCS: Reducing PCS improves near-surface resolution, making it
ideal for detecting defects close to the material’s surface.

PCS is a critical parameter in TOFD, as it must be adjusted according to the inspection

requirements to balance weld coverage and resolution effectively.

Techniques in TOFD

Scanning Techniques

1. With Respect to Scan Direction:

o Longitudinal Scan (D-scan):
▪ The scan direction is perpendicular to the probe beam direction.
▪ Most frequently used for weld inspection.
▪ It allows high-speed inspection.
▪ Defect depth is accurately measured only when the probes are
symmetrically positioned with respect to the defect.
▪ The lateral position of the defect remains unknown.

o Parallel Scan (B-scan):

▪ The movement of the probes is parallel to the probe beam direction.
▪ It allows for precise sizing and positioning of defects.
▪ Inspection time is minimized when probes are symmetrically
positioned over the defect.
▪ The presence of a weld cap can reduce or block the extent of the scan.

2. With Respect to the Mechanism Used:

o Manual Scanning:
 ▪ Achieved using jigs with probe holders, allowing horizontal adjustment
to set the probe center separation (PCS).
▪ Encoders are used to record the position of the probes.
▪ Markings on the PCS and edges of the probe help ensure the inspector
does not deviate from the correct path. Guides (e.g., magnetic strips or
rulers) can assist in keeping the scan straight.
▪ Manual scanning requires practice to maintain consistent movement
and direction. The inspector can pause and restart if data is missing or
improperly captured.
o Mechanical Scanning:
▪ Achieved using scanners, similar to jigs, with probe holders for
adjusting the PCS.
▪ Encoders record probe position. The inspector ensures the scanner stays
within the marked location.
▪ Can be semi-automatic, where the inspector uses mechanical means
(e.g., handle or gear) to move the scanner.
▪ In automatic scanning, a motor operates the scanner. Advanced
systems allow motor control directly from the equipment, enabling
precise control of speed and movement.

TOFD Calibration Procedure

1. Calibration Block Setup: Position TOFD probes on a block with known flaws (like
holes or notches).
2. Adjust Probe Center Separation (PCS): Set PCS for the desired focus depth and
resolution based on inspection needs.
3. Time Calibration: Align system’s time base to detect front and back wall echoes
accurately; adjust time delays as needed.
4. Set Sensitivity and Gain: Adjust gain to achieve clear signals without noise, ensuring
diffracted signals are detectable.
5. Depth Calibration: Adjust depth scale using known flaw depths to ensure accurate
depth representation.
6. Verify Lateral Wave and Back Wall Echo: Confirm clear separation of these signals
within expected ranges.
7. Test Known Defects: Conduct scans to verify accurate detection and sizing of known
flaws.
8. Record Calibration Settings: Document all parameters for consistency in actual
inspections.

Regular calibration keeps TOFD results accurate and reliable.

Synthetic Aperture Focusing Technique (SAFT):

• Objective: SAFT is employed to improve the detection and measurement of flaws,

particularly those smaller than the natural beam spread of a transducer. It enables more
precise flaw sizing and location by reconstructing the image through multiple data
points collected over time.
How SAFT Works:

1. Beam Collimation:
o The normal transducer beam naturally spreads as it propagates through a
material (represented in the image as "normal beam spread").
o SAFT, however, narrows the beam by using multiple transducer positions and
combining the reflected signals from various angles. The effective beam width
after SAFT processing is about half the crystal diameter, which minimizes the
beam spread and provides a more focused inspection.
2. Improved Flaw Detection:
o In the image, the "flaw" represents a discontinuity in the material.
o Without SAFT, the normal beam spread could result in a less accurate
representation of the flaw size or miss smaller flaws altogether.
o With SAFT, the focused beam increases the resolution and allows for better
accuracy in detecting the flaw's dimensions. The reduction in beam spread also
helps in distinguishing between multiple closely spaced flaws.
3. 6 dB Drop Method for Measuring Flaw Size:
o The 6 dB drop method involves analyzing the amplitude of the signal reflected
from the flaw. The length of the flaw is typically measured as the distance
between the points where the signal amplitude drops by 6 dB from its maximum
value.
o Using SAFT, the more focused beam allows for more precise measurement of
flaw length on the reconstructed Time-of-Flight Diffraction (TOFD) D-scan
signal.
4. Signal-to-Noise Ratio Improvement:
o SAFT also improves the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) by effectively averaging
the signals from multiple angles. This reduces the influence of random noise,
making it easier to distinguish true flaw signals from background noise.

Structural Health Monitoring (SHM)

Definition:
Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) involves the continuous or periodic observation and
analysis of engineering structures, such as bridges and buildings, to assess their material and
geometric properties over time. This monitoring process is designed to detect changes resulting
from environmental factors, wear, and aging, providing updated information on the structure's
capacity to perform its intended function.

Key Elements of SHM:

1. Structure: The object being monitored (e.g., a building, bridge, aircraft).

2. Sensors: Devices used to measure specific parameters (e.g., strain, vibration).
3. Data Acquisition Systems: Tools for collecting the measured data.
4. Data Transfer and Storage: Methods to transmit and store the data for future analysis.
5. Data Management: Systems to organize and process the data.
6. Data Interpretation and Diagnosis:
o System Identification
o Structural Model Update
o Structural Condition Assessment
o Prediction of Remaining Service Life

Methods:

1. Passive SHM:
o Focuses on measuring operational parameters (e.g., airspeed, stresses) and
inferring the state of structural health indirectly.
o It does not directly detect damage but assesses the overall condition based on
usage and stress factors.

Example:

• Aircraft Monitoring:

In aviation, Passive SHM might involve monitoring flight parameters like airspeed,
turbulence, G-forces, and vibration levels. By combining this data with algorithms
based on the aircraft's design, engineers can estimate how much fatigue or stress has
accumulated over time and how much of the aircraft’s lifespan remains. This is crucial
for scheduling maintenance and predicting when parts need to be replaced to avoid
failure.

2. Active SHM:
o Directly examines the structure to detect the presence and extent of damage.
o Similar to non-destructive evaluation (NDE) techniques, active SHM uses
sensors installed permanently on the structure to provide real-time health
updates.

Example:

• Wind Turbine Blade Monitoring:

 Wind turbines are subjected to a lot of wear due to environmental conditions. In Active
SHM, sensors like acoustic emission or vibration sensors are installed on the blades of
wind turbines. These sensors continuously monitor the blades for cracks or other forms
of damage. If a crack begins to form, the sensor detects the stress waves generated by
the damage, alerting the engineers to take corrective action before the crack worsens.

Common SHM Sensors:

1. Fiber Optic Sensors: Measure strain, displacement, vibration, temperature, and other
factors.
2. Accelerometers: Monitor real-time variations in dynamic characteristics.
3. Vibrating Wire Sensors: Used for measuring static strain, stress, pressure, and
displacement.
4. Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT): Measures linear displacement.
5. Load Cells: Convert mechanical force into electrical signals for monitoring tension,
compression, or pressure.
6. Inclinometers: Monitor subsurface movements and deformations.
7. Tilt Meters: Detect small changes in the inclination of structures.
8. Strain Gauges: Measure strain due to applied force, commonly used in steel and
concrete structures.
9. Acoustic Emission Sensors: Detect stress waves generated by structural defects.
10. Temperature Sensors: Measure temperature changes that may affect structural
integrity.

Applications:

• SHM is widely used in structures like bridges, buildings, and aircraft to monitor
degradation and detect potential failures. The data obtained helps in predicting the
lifespan and necessary preventive maintenance of the structure.

What is a Genetic Algorithm?

A Genetic Algorithm is a way to solve problems by mimicking the process of natural

selection (like how nature picks the best animals to survive). It helps in finding the best
solution when there are many possible options.

Key Concepts of Genetic Algorithm:

1. Population:
o Think of a group of possible solutions as a population. Each solution is like an
individual (or “chromosome” in biology).
2. Fitness Function:
o This is like a score or rating for each solution, telling us how good it is at
solving the problem. Better solutions get higher scores.
3. Selection:
o The best solutions (those with high scores) are picked to make the next
generation. It's like choosing the strongest animals to have babies.
 4. Crossover (Recombination):
o Crossover is like combining parts from two good solutions to make a new one.
It’s similar to how offspring inherit traits from both parents.
5. Mutation:
o Random changes are made to some solutions. This helps create new ideas and
prevents getting stuck with only similar solutions.
6. Generation:
o A new group (new population) of solutions is created after each round. This
process repeats until we find the best solution.

How Genetic Algorithms Help in Structural Health Monitoring (SHM):

In SHM, we want to place sensors in the best spots on structures (like bridges or buildings) to
monitor their health. However, placing a lot of sensors can be expensive and complicated.
Genetic algorithms help find the best locations for placing sensors efficiently.

How It Works:

1. The Problem:
o Placing too many sensors on a bridge or building is costly and unnecessary. But
we also don’t want to miss out on important spots where damage can happen.
2. Using a Genetic Algorithm:
o The algorithm tries many different sensor placements (like many possible
solutions). It checks how well each placement monitors the structure, and only
the best ones survive.

Steps to Find the Best Sensor Placement:

1. Initial Population:
o First, the algorithm creates a random set of sensor placements on the structure.
Each placement is a different solution.
2. Fitness Evaluation:
o Each placement is checked to see how good it is (its fitness). For example, it
looks at:
▪ Does it cover important areas of the structure?
▪ How well can it detect damage?
▪ Can we use fewer sensors?
3. Selection:
o The best placements (those with the highest fitness) are picked to create new
sensor configurations.
4. Crossover and Mutation:
o The best placements are mixed and changed a little to form new sensor
arrangements (just like how genes combine in offspring).
5. New Generation:
o A new set of sensor placements replaces the old ones, and the process continues
for many rounds (generations) until the algorithm finds the best placement.
Example (Bridge Monitoring):

Imagine you are trying to place sensors on a bridge. Placing them everywhere is too costly.
The genetic algorithm suggests the best spots (like near high-stress areas) where sensors can
detect damage effectively. After trying many different configurations, it shows the most
efficient and cost-effective way to place the sensors.

Advantages:

1. Cost-effective: It helps reduce the number of sensors needed, saving money.

2. Efficient: It can find the best sensor locations in large or complex structures.
3. Adaptable: This method can be used for many different structures, from bridges to
buildings.

In short, a Genetic Algorithm helps us find the best spots to place sensors on a structure in a
way that’s cost-effective and efficient. It mimics how nature works by choosing the best
solutions, mixing them, and making improvements over time until it finds the perfect sensor
placement.