Experiment No:01

Experiment name: Familiarization with oscilloscope and electronic

equipment
Objective: Acquaintance of electrical lab and its equipment’s.
Apparatus required:-
• Plug, Socket and switch
• Bread Board/ Patch Board
• Power Supply (Model RXN 303D):
• The Multimeter
• DEV 2769 Trainer board
• Oscilloscope
• Function Generator

Theory:-
Electronics lab is equipped with 10 work benches. Each work bench contains its dedicated main
220V AC mains supply switch board, multimeter, oscilloscope, DC power supply, function
generator and trainer boards. Before going to lab work each student should ensure following two
things

1: Safety: Execution of Lab work in a safe manner is even more important than performing
accurate electronic measurement and construction of neat circuit. The first step is always to
become familiar with the lab itself. You should know where the fire extinguishers and
emergency exit are located.
The ever present hazard in an electronics lab is an electric shock. Most people equate the severity
of electric shook with the voltage i.e., a 1000V shock is deadlier than a 100V shock. This is not
true. The real measure of a shock is the amount of current that flows through the body.
Following table lists the impact of ac alternating current on the body

Current Effect
1-5mA Threshold of sensation
5-20mA Involuntary muscle contraction
20-100mA Pain, breathing difficulties
100-300mA Change in heartbeat, possible death
>300mA Respiratory paralysis, burn, unconsciousness

The amount of the current flowing through the body during an electric shock depends on the
voltage and resistance between the terminals of voltage source. This resistance consists of (1)
Resistance of the contact point between body and the circuit (2) skin resistance at the point the
current flows into the bode (3) Internal resistance of a body (4) skin resistance where current
flows out of the body(e.g. shoes). Obviously larger the resistance the smaller would be the
current. Therefore, in order to minimize the electric shock hazard
 a) Always power down the electrical equipment, disconnect the power cord and wait for the
few seconds before touching exposed wires. Remember circuit breakers are usually set
for much larger currents (e.g household breakers are at 15A and higher) then the current
that kills a person(200-300mA). Do not assume that your circuit is powered with 5V, it is
not dangerous. In some circuit’s capacitors can be charged to a much higher voltage and
give you a nasty surprise
b) Do not wear rings, watches, necklace and any other loose metallic object. Rings and
watches are especially dangerous as the skin beneath them is wet by sweat making the
resistance of skin much lower
c) Make sure your hands are dry. Resistance of wet skin can be as low as 1K ohm as
opposed to dry skin. Which is about 500k ohm

d) Make sure that your shoes are dry(especially in rainy days). Do not lean on metallic
objects (like legs of bench table) as you are providing a very large contact is for the
current to flow out of your body to ground.

2. Cleanliness:
Maintaining the cleanliness of lab is not only the duty of lab staff but is also important for
students. Whenever you come to lab place your bags outside of lab. You are not allowed to eat
anything within the lab. Don’t through any waste material in lab. After performing the lab
experiment place every apparatus to its original place. These are some of the basic rules. A rule
list is attached to each work bench.

1. Plug, Socket and switch:

Plug:
Generally, the plug is the movable connector attached to an electrically operated device's mains
cable. The plug has protruding prongs, blades, or pins (referred to as male) that fit into matching
slots or holes (called female) in the sockets
Socket:
The socket is fixed on equipment or a building structure and connected to an energized electrical
circuit. Sockets are designed to prevent exposure of bare energized contacts.

Fig 1.1 Plug and socket

Switch:
In electrical engineering, a switch is an electrical component that can break an electrical circuit,
interrupting the current or diverting it from one conductor to another.
Inserting or Removing plug: Before inserting plug switch off the main supply. When removing a
plug from a socket pull at the plug body, not the cable, else internal connections may be
damaged.
 Fig 1.2 Switch
Before inserting plug switch off the main supply. When removing a plug from a socket pull at
the plug body, not the cable, else internal connections may be damaged.
2. Bread Board/ Patch Board:
A breadboard (or protoboard) is a construction base for prototyping of electronics. Originally it
was literally a bread board, a polished piece of wood used for slicing bread. This makes it easy to
use for creating temporary prototypes and experimenting with circuit design

Fig 2.1 Bread Board

3. Power Supply(Model RXN 303D):
RXN-303D Linear DC Adjustable Power Supply is equipment with high stability, high
reliability, low noise; its output voltage and current can auto-conversion. This low cost and
universal power supply can be used in many different areas such as Auto/Products related to
electron/ Products related to computer/ Research institutions, educational institutions and so on.

Fig 3.1 Power Supply(Model RXN 303D)

4. The Multimeter:
Multimeter or a multi tester, also known as a VOM (Volt-Ohm meter), is an electronic
measuring instrument that combines several measurement functions in one unit. A typical
multimeter would include basic features such as the ability to measure voltage, current, and
resistance.
 Fig 4.1 multi meter

Quantities to be measured: Contemporary multimeter can measure many quantities. The

common ones are:

• Voltage, alternating and direct, in volts.

• Current, alternating and direct, in amperes.
The frequency range for which AC measurements are accurate must be specified.

• Resistance in ohms.

Additionally, some multimeter measure:

• Capacitance in farads.
• Conductance in Siemens.
• Decibels.
• Duty cycle as a percentage.
• Frequency in hertz.
• Inductance in henrys.
• Temperature in degrees Celsius or Fahrenheit, with an appropriate temperature test
probe, often a thermocouple

a. Digital Multimeter as voltmeter:

Digital Multimeter can also be used as voltmeter. A voltmeter is an instrument used for
measuring electrical potential difference between two points in an electric circuit.
Analog voltmeters move a pointer across a scale in proportion to the voltage of the
circuit; digital voltmeters give a numerical display of voltage by use of an analog to
digital converter.

b. Digital Multimeter as Ammeter:

Digital voltmeter can also be used as ammeter. An ammeter is a measuring instrument
used to measure the electric current in a circuit. Electric currents are measured in
amperes (A), hence the name. Instruments used to measure smaller currents, in the mille
ampere or microampere range, are designated as millimeters or micrometers. Early
ammeters were laboratory instruments which relied on the Earth's magnetic field for
operation.
c. Digital Multimeter as ohmmeter
 An ohmmeter is an electrical instrument that measures electrical resistance, the
opposition to an electric current. Micro-ohmmeters (micro ohmmeter or
microohmmeter) make low resistance measurements. Megohmmeters (aka
megaohmmeter or in the case of a trademarked device Megger) measure large values of
resistance
5. Function Generator:
Function generator is usually a piece of electronic test equipment or software used to
generate different types of electrical waveforms over a wide range of frequencies. Some of
the most common waveforms produced by the function generator are the sine, square,
triangular and saw tooth shapes. These waveforms can be either repetitive or single-shot
(which requires an internal or external trigger source). Integrated circuits used to generate
waveforms may also be described as function generator ICs.

Fig 5.1 Function generator

6. Oscilloscope:
An oscilloscope, previously called an oscillograph, and informally known as a scope, CRO (for
cathode-ray oscilloscope), or DSO (for the more modern digital storage oscilloscope), is a type
of electronic test instrument that allows observation of constantly varying signal voltages,
usually as a two-dimensional plot of one or more signals as a function of time. Non-electrical
signals (such as sound or vibration) can be converted to voltages and displayed.

Fig 6.1 Oscilloscope

7. DEV 2769 Trainer board:
This trainer is equipped with all necessary accessories required to perform basic electronic and
electric experiments. Trainer has on board DC power supply of +5v, +12V, -5V, -12V, bread
board, function generator, resistors etc.
 Fig 7.1 DEV 2769 Trainer board

Conclusion:

In this experiment, we became familiar with various electrical and electronic lab equipment essential for circuit
design, testing, and measurement. We learned about the proper use and functions of key tools such as the digital
multimeter, DC power supply, breadboard, function generator, oscilloscope, and trainer board. Additionally, we
understood the importance of safety precautions and cleanliness within the lab environment.

This foundational knowledge is critical for performing future experiments efficiently and safely. By recognizing
the purpose and handling of each apparatus, students are better prepared to carry out accurate measurements and
build reliable circuits in the upcoming lab sessions.
Experiment No:02
Experiment name: to study the diode characteristics
Objectives:
• To study V-I characteristics of forward and reverse bias.
• To find the cut-in voltage for Silicon P-N Junction diode.
• To find static and dynamic (AC) resistance in both forward and reverse biased conditions for P-N
junction diode.
Apparatus Required:
• Variable resistor (1KΩ)
• Resistance (470Ω, 0.5W)
• Silicon diode (1N4001)
• Analog Ammeter (DC-mA)
• Voltmeter (0–5V) / Oscilloscope
• Trainer board (+15V, –15V)
• Supply voltage (-35V for reverse bias)
• Connecting wires
Theory:
A diode is a two-terminal electronic component that conducts current primarily in one direction. It has a p-type
and an n-type semiconductor joined together forming a P-N junction. The terminal connected to the p-type
material is called the anode, and the one connected to the n-type is the cathode.

When the diode is forward biased, it allows current to flow once the applied voltage exceeds a threshold (typically
0.7V for silicon). When reverse biased, only a very small leakage current flows until breakdown.
Fig: Diode
Forward Bias:

In forward bias condition, the positive terminal of the power supply is connected to the anode of the diode, and

the negative terminal is connected to the cathode. This reduces the barrier potential and allows current to flow.

As voltage increases and reaches around 0.7V, the diode starts conducting significantly. This voltage is called the
cut-in voltage. Beyond this point, current increases exponentially with voltage.
Reverse Bias:
In reverse bias condition, the positive terminal is connected to the cathode, and the negative terminal is connected
to the anode. This increases the barrier, preventing current flow.

A very small leakage current flows due to minority charge carriers. This remains nearly constant and is in
microamperes. No significant conduction occurs until breakdown voltage (not tested in this lab).
Circuit Diagram:
Procedure:
1. Forward Bias Configuration:
o Connect the circuit with the diode, resistor, voltmeter, ammeter, and DC power
supply in forward bias configuration (anode to positive, cathode to negative).
2. Data Collection (Forward Bias):
o Gradually increase the voltage from 0V in small steps.
o At each step, record the voltage across the diode and the corresponding current.
3. Reverse Bias Configuration:
o Reverse the diode connections to achieve reverse bias (cathode to positive, anode to
negative).
4. Data Collection (Reverse Bias):
o Increase the reverse voltage gradually in small steps.
o Record the reverse current at each voltage level. It should remain very low.
5. Graph Plotting:
o Plot the V-I graph for both forward and reverse bias from the recorded data.
Diode Testing:
1. Set the multimeter to diode test mode.
2. Connect the red probe to the anode and the black probe to the cathode.
o A good diode shows a forward voltage drop (~0.6–0.7V).
3. Reverse the probes:
o A good diode shows "OL" or no reading in reverse.
4. Interpretation:
o Reading both ways = Shorted diode
o No reading either way = Open diode
o Reading one way only = Diode is working
Forward Bias Mode:
• Anode to positive, cathode to negative
• Diode conducts current
• Voltage drop ~0.7V
• Acts like a closed switch
Reverse Bias Mode:
• Anode to negative, cathode to positive
• Diode blocks current (only small leakage current flows)
 • Acts like an open switch
• At high reverse voltage, breakdown can occur

Table: Forward & Reverse Current

Forward Forward Reverse Reverse

Voltage(V) current voltage(V) Current
I(mA) I(mA)
0.5 1 0.5 0
0.6 4 2 0
0.7 9 20 1.5
0.8 18 70 2
0.9 31 85 30

DC resistance R=V/I

AC resistance R=V/I

Results:
• The silicon diode shows exponential increase in current beyond 0.7V.
• Reverse current is very small and constant indicating diode blocking behavior.
• The cut-in voltage was observed around 0.7V.
Discussion:
• Forward bias allowed increasing current after a threshold.
• Reverse bias maintained low current even at higher voltages.
• The experiment verifies standard diode behavior.
Precautions:
• Check connections carefully before applying power.
• Use correct polarity for diode.
• Increase voltage gradually.
• Do not exceed diode’s maximum ratings.
Conclusion:
The V-I characteristics of a silicon diode were successfully studied.
It was observed that:
• In forward bias, the diode starts conducting around 0.7V.
• In reverse bias, only a small leakage current flows.
This experiment confirmed the theoretical characteristics of a PN junction diode.