Data Communication

[ENCT 253]

Chapter 1
Introduction

Data Communication Chapter 1: Introduction BY: Er. MB Sah

Data communication: It is the process of exchange of data/information between two or more
devices or transmitter and receiver or source and destination through a transmission medium
such as cables, optical fibers, or wireless channels. It involves the transmission, reception, and
processing of digital or analog signals to convey information from one point to another.

Data communication system: A data communication system is a collection of hardware,

software, and protocols designed to facilitate the exchange of data between two or more devices
or systems.
The effectiveness of data communication system depends on its four fundamental characteristics:
Delivery: The system must deliver data to the correct destination .Data must be received by the
intended receiver only.
Accuracy: The System must deliver the data accurately. The data that have been altered in
transmission and uncorrected at the receiver are useless.
Timeliness: The system must deliver data in time. The data which are delivered late are useless.
This is more sensitive in case of real time transmission.
Jitter: Jitter is any deviation in, or displacement of the signal pulses in a high-frequency digital
signal. The deviation can be in terms of amplitude, phase timing or the width of the
signal pulse.

Data communication system may be analog or digital.

Analog data communication system: An analog data communication system is a system that
transmits and receives data in the form of analog signals. Analog systems transmit data as
continuous waveforms that vary in amplitude, frequency, or phase. Telephones, radios are the
example of analog communication system.
Digital data communication system: A digital data communication system is a system that
transmits and receives data in the form of digital signals, where data is represented as discrete
binary values (0s and 1s). Digital communication systems encode information into digital
signals, allowing for more efficient and reliable transmission, processing, and storage of data
compared to analog systems. Computer networking, chat and conferencing, social media, etc. are
the example of digital communication system.

Block Diagram of Analog Data Communication System

The block diagram of Analog communication system is a pictorial view of communication
system in which different functional elements are represented in the form of block as shown in
figure below.

Figure: Block diagram of Communication system

Information source
A communication system serves to communicate a message or information. This information
originates in the information source.
The function of information source is to produce required message which has to be
transmitted.
There can be various messages in the form of words, group of words, code, symbols, sound,
images, videos, etc.
Data Communication Chapter 1: Introduction BY: Er. MB Sah
Input Transducer
The transducer is a device which converts one form of energy into another form.
The message produced by information source is not electrical in nature.
An input transducer is used to convert it into a time varying electrical signal.
For example- in the case of radio broadcasting, a microphone converts the information or
message which is in the form of sound waves into corresponding electrical signal.
Transmitter
The function of transmitter is to process the electrical signal from different aspects.
Modulation is the main function of the transmitter
For example-in the radio broadcasting, the electrical signal is obtained from sound signal is
processed to restrict its range of audio frequencies (upto 5KHz in AM radio broadcast) and is
often amplified.
Channel
The function of channel is to provide a physical connection between transmitter and receiver.
The channel is also called a medium through which message travels from the transmitter to
receiver.
There are two types of channels.
I. Point to point channel- examples are wire lines, microwave links, optical fiber etc.
II. Broadcast channel- example- satellites in geostationary orbit.
Noise
The noise is an unwanted signal, which tends to interfere with the required signal.
Noise signal is always random in nature.
Noise may interfere with signal at any point in communication system.
Noise has its greatest effect on the signal in the channel.
Receiver
The main function of receiver is to reproduce the message signal in electrical form from
distorted received signal.
This reproduction of the original signal is accomplished by a process known as the
demodulation or detection.
Demodulation is the reverse process of modulation carried out in the transmitter.
Destination
Destination is the final stage, which is used to convert an electrical signal into its original
form.
For example- in radio broadcasting, the destination is a loud speaker which works as a
transducer. i.e. converts the electrical signal in the form of original sound signal.
Advantages of analog communication system
The advantages of analog communication system are as follows:
Analog signal uses less bandwidth as compared to the digital signal. It is due to the use of
amplifier in the analog communication system, which improves the signal and reduces the
distortion.
It provides a more accurate method of representation due to its continuous nature.
Audio signals are preferred for audio and video transmissions. It is because these signals can
be easily modulated and demodulated using Amplitude Modulation and Demodulation.
Analog signals are easy to process as compared to the digital signals.
It offers a infinite amount of signal resolution.
Analog signals have high density because it is continuous and requires a medium to transmit.

Data Communication Chapter 1: Introduction BY: Er. MB Sah

Disadvantages of analog communication system
The disadvantages of analog communication system are as follows:
Analog signals are more susceptible to noise and distortion during transmission. Noise
can degrade the quality of the signal.
Over a long distance, analog signal can degrade which reduces the quality of
communication.
Analog signals are not as easily manipulated or processed as digital signals.
It has lack of error detection and correction.

Block Diagram of Digital Data Communication System

The block diagram of digital data communication system is given below

Figure: Block diagram of digital data communication system

The blocks of the digital communication system are described individually
Source: The source can be an analog signal. Example: A Sound signal
Input Transduce: This is a transducer which takes a physical input and converts it to an
electrical signal (Example: microphone). This block also consists of an analog to
digital converter where a digital signal is needed for further processes. A digital signal is
generally represented by a binary sequence.
Source Encoder: The source encoder is used to compress the data into minimum number of bits.
This helps in effective utilization of the bandwidth. It removes the redundant bits or unnecessary
excess bits that are zeros from the input data.
Channel Encoder: The channel encoder, does the coding for error correction. During the
transmission of the signal, due to the noise in the channel, the signal may get altered and hence to
avoid this, the channel encoder adds some redundant bits to the transmitted data. These are the
error correcting bits.
The channel encoder plays an important role in the communication system.
Digital Modulator: The signal to be transmitted is modulated here by a carrier. The signal is
also converted to analog from the digital sequence, in order to make it travel through the channel
or medium.
Channel: The channel or a medium, allows the analog signal to transmit from the transmitter
end to the receiver end. It is the part of model at which maximum noise is added to the signal.

Digital Demodulator: This is the first step at the receiver end. The received signal is
demodulated as well as converted again from analog to digital. The signal gets reconstructed
here.
Data Communication Chapter 1: Introduction BY: Er. MB Sah
 Channel Decoder: The channel decoder, after detecting the sequence, does some error
corrections. The distortions which might occur during the transmission are corrected by adding
some redundant bits. This addition of bits helps in the complete recovery of the original signal.
Source Decoder: The resultant signal is once again digitized by sampling and quantizing so that
the pure digital output is obtained without the loss of information. The source decoder recreates
the source output.
Output Transducer: This is the last block which converts the signal into the original physical
form, which was at the input of the transmitter. It converts the electrical signal into physical
output (Example: loud speaker).
Output Signal: This is the output which is produced after the whole process. Example − the
sound signal received.
Advantages of Digital Communication system
Digital communication systems are cheaper to implement.
The impact of noise interference, distortion is less.
The correction and detection of errors are easy in digital communication, as there is a use
of channel coding.
The probability of cross-talk is very less in digital communication.\
The implementation of hardware is more flexible in digital communication.
Disadvantages of Digital Communication system
There is high power consumption in digital communication system.
There is a sampling error.
It requires more transmission bandwidth.
Synchronization is required.
It has complex circuit.
Numbers of ADC and DAC have to be used.
Differences between Analog and Digital Communication
Category Analog Communication Digital Communication
Definition It uses analog signals for transmitting It uses digital signals for transmitting data from
data from transmitter to the receiver. transmitter to the receiver.
Signal The analog signal is a continuous Digital signal uses two bits for transmission of
time varying signal. level 0 (LOW) and 1 (HIGH).
Noise Poor Good
Immunity
Error High Low
Probability
Coding No Yes (The digital communication system uses an
encoder and decoder for coding at the
transmitting and receiving end.)
Flexible Less flexible More flexible
Cost Low cost High cost
Power Low High
consumption
Data Less accurate More accurate
transmission
Examples Audio signals, speech signals, video Clock signals
signals, etc.
Applications Radar, Telephony, etc. Digital watches, Compact Disks, computers, etc.

Data Communication Chapter 1: Introduction BY: Er. MB Sah

Data: Data is a collection of raw, unorganized facts and details like text, observations, figures,
symbols, and descriptions of things etc. In other words, data does not carry any specific purpose
and has no significance by itself. It is measured in terms of bits and bytes in context of computer
storage and processing. Data may be analog or digital, qualitative, or quantitative, structured, or
unstructured etc.

Analog data: Analog data refers to information that is continuous and take continuous values. It
has an infinite number of values.

Digital data: Digital data refers to information that has discrete states and takes only discrete
values. It has finite number of values.

Qualitative data: It is non-numerical data. It describes the quality of something or someone. It

is descriptive information. For example, the skin colour, eye colour, hair texture, etc. gives us the
qualitative information about a person.
Quantitative data: It is a numerical data which provides numerical information. Example: the
height and weight of a person.

Structured Data: The data which is organized into specific format, making it easy to search,
analyze and process is known as structured data. Structured data is found in relational databases
that includes information like numbers, data, and categories.
Unstructured Data: The data which is not organized into specific format is known as
unstructured data. It may include some text documents, images, videos, and other data that is not
easily organized or analyzed without additional processing.

Information: It is processed, organized, and structured data. It provides context for data and
enables decision making.

Data Representation
Data representation is the process of converting raw data into a format that can be understood,
processed, and manipulated by a computer system. It involves encoding information in a
structured manner so that it can be stored, transmitted, and interpreted effectively.
The data can be represented into different forms such as
• Text
• Numbers
• Images
• Audio
• Video
Text: Text is represented as bit pattern or sequence of bits (such as 0001111). Various types of
bits are assigned to represent text symbols. A code where each number represents a character can
be used to convert text into binary.
Text File Formats: .doc, .docx, .pdf, .rtf, .txt, etc.

Numbers: Numbers include combination of digits from 0 to 9. Numbers are directly converted
into binary patterns by dividing by 2 without any encoding. The numbers we want to transfer
generally will be in the decimal number system. We need to convert the numbers from decimal
to a binary number system to get a bit stream.
Number File Formats: Integer, Fixed point, Date, Boolean, Decimal, etc.

Data Communication Chapter 1: Introduction BY: Er. MB Sah

Images: Images are also represented as bit patterns. An image is composed of matrix of pixels
with different values of pixels each where each pixel is represented as dots. Size of the picture is
dependent on its resolution. Consider a simple black and white image. If 1 is black (or on) and 0
is white (or off), then a simple black and white picture can be created using binary.
Image File Formats: Image can be in the format of JPEG, PNG, TIFF, GIF, etc.

Audio: Audio signal is a representation of sound or music. Audio differs from all i.e. from text,
number, and images. Audio is a series of binary numbers for digital signals. It is continuous but
not discrete.
Audio File Formats: MP3, M4A audio file type, FLAC, WAV, WMA, AAC, etc.

Video: Videos consist of a sequence of images (frames) displayed rapidly to create the illusion
of motion. Video formats, such as MPEG, compress and store these frames along with audio data
to produce a coherent multimedia presentation. Video refers to the recording, broadcasting,
copying or playback. Video can either be produced or it is continuous.
Video File Formats: MP4, MOV, AVI, FLV, etc.
Data Flows: It refers the movement of data between devices or processes in computer network.
It shows how the data is transferred from source to destination. Data flow is essential for
communication, ensuring that information reaches its target accurately and efficiently.
Typically, data flow categorized as simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex.

Figure: Data flow or Mode of Communication

Simplex Mode of Communication: Data can only flow in one direction. Think of a keyboard or
monitor, where you input data (keyboard) or receive data (monitor), but not both at the same
time.
Half-Duplex Mode of Communication: Half-duplex communication allows both parties to
transmit and receive data, but not simultaneously. A walkie-talkie is a good example, where one
person can speak (transmit) while the other listens (receive), but not both at the same time.

Full-Duplex Mode of Communication: Full-duplex communication allows both parties to

transmit and receive data simultaneously. This is common in telephone conversations, where
both people can speak and listen at the same time.

Data Communication Chapter 1: Introduction BY: Er. MB Sah

Evolution of data communication
The evolution of data communication has been a fascinating journey, shaped by technological
advancements and the increasing need for efficient information exchange. It all started with early
forms of communication like smoke signals and drum beats, but here's a quick dive into some
key milestones:
1. Telegraph (1830s): Samuel Morse's invention revolutionized long-distance
communication with Morse code, transmitting messages over wires using electrical
signals.
2. Telephone (1870s): Alexander Graham Bell's invention allowed voice communication
over long distances, replacing telegraphs for personal and business conversations.
3. Radio and Television (1900s): These mediums enabled broadcast communication,
reaching mass audiences globally, transforming how information and entertainment were
disseminated.
4. Computers and Internet (1960s-1990s): The development of computers led to the
creation of networks like ARPANET, evolving into the internet, allowing computers
worldwide to communicate and share data.
5. Digital Revolution (2000s): The proliferation of digital devices, high-speed internet, and
mobile technology accelerated data communication, enabling instant messaging, video
calls, and cloud computing.
6. IoT and Big Data (2010s-present): The Internet of Things (IoT) expanded data
communication to everyday objects, generating massive amounts of data used for
analytics, automation, and AI.
7. 5G and Future Innovations: The rollout of 5G promises even faster and more reliable
communication, supporting advanced technologies like autonomous vehicles, virtual
reality, and real-time data processing.

A Communication Model
The fundamental purpose of a communications system is the exchange of data between two
parties. Generally, communication model has the following key elements i.e. Source system,
transmission system and Destination system.

Figure: General block diagram of Communication Model

Source: This device generates the data to be transmitted, examples are telephones and personal
computers.

Transmitter: The data generated by a source system are not transmitted directly in the form in
which they were generated. Rather, a transmitter transforms and encodes the information in such
a way as to produce electromagnetic signals that can be transmitted across some sort of
transmission system.
For example, a modem takes a digital bit stream from an attached device such as a personal
computer and transforms that bit stream into an analog signal that can be handled by the
telephone network.

Transmission System: This can be a single transmission line or a complex network connecting
source and destination.
Data Communication Chapter 1: Introduction BY: Er. MB Sah
Receiver: The receiver accepts the signal from the transmission system and converts it into a
form that can be handled by the destination device.
For example, a modem will accept an analog signal coming from a network or transmission line
and convert it into a digital bit stream.

Destination: Takes the incoming data from the receiver.

Communications Tasks
The key tasks that must be performed in a data communications system are:
• Transmission system utilization: need to make efficient use of transmission facilities
typically share among a number of communicating devices.
• A device must interface with the transmission system.
• Once an interface is established, signal generation is required for communication.
• There must be synchronization between transmitter and receiver, to determine when a
signal begins to arrive and when it ends.
• There is a variety of requirements for communication between two parties that might be
collected under the term exchange management.
• Error detection and correction are required in circumstances where errors cannot be
tolerated
• Flow control is required to assure that the source does not overwhelm the destination by
sending data faster than they can be processed and absorbed
• Addressing and routing, so a source system can indicate the identity of the intended
destination, and can choose a specific route through this network
• Recovery allows an interrupted transaction to resume activity at the point of interruption
or to condition prior to the beginning of the exchange
• Message formatting has to do with an agreement between two parties as to the form of
the data to be exchanged or transmitted
• Frequently need to provide some measure of security in a data communications system
• Network management capabilities are needed to configure the system, monitor its
status, react to failures and overloads, and plan intelligently for future growth

Data Communications Model

Figure: Simplified data communications model

A new perspective on the communications model shown above is explained below.
We trace the details of above figure using electronic mail as an example. Assume a PC user
wants to send an email message m to another user.

Data Communication Chapter 1: Introduction BY: Er. MB Sah

The process is modeled as follows:
• User keys in message (m) comprising bits (g) buffered in source PC memory.
• Input data is transferred to I/O device (transmitter) as sequence of bits g(t) using voltage
shifts.
• Transmitter converts these into a signal s(t) suitable for transmission media being used.
• whilst transiting media signal may be impaired so received signal r(t) may differ from s(t)
• Receiver decodes signal recovering g’(t) as estimate of original g(t).
• Which is buffered in destination PC memory as bits (g’) being the received message (m’).

Networks
A network is a group of interconnected nodes or computing devices that exchange data and
resources with each other. A network connection between these devices can be established using
cable or wireless media.

Networks are categorized on the basis of their size. The three basic categories of computer
networks are:
• Local Area Network (LAN)
• Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
• Wide Area Network (WAN)

Local Area Network (LAN)

A Local Area Network (LAN) is a network that connects computers and other devices within a
small geographical area, such as a home, school, office, or building. It provides a means for
information exchange among those devices.

Figure: Local Area Network (LAN)

Network in which LAN protocols are used or devices are used in LAN
Communication Infrastructure:
• Twisted pair cables (Computer below 100)
• Co-axial Cables (>100)

Data Communication Chapter 1: Introduction BY: Er. MB Sah

 • Optical Fibers (>1000)
LAN offers a much higher speed (around 100 mbps) and data transfer rate comparatively
to WAN.
LANs come in a number of different configurations. The most common are
• switched LANs, e.g. Ethernet LAN, ATM & Fiber Channel LANs
• wireless LANs
LAN Transmission Method
• Broadband LAN: FDM, Analog signal, wideband 440 MHz, Data rate slow,
expensive
• Baseband LAN: multimedia complications, TDM, digital signal, Bandwidth 50
MHz, Data rate high, use repeaters at each 1500m length, cheap
The initial setup cost of installing Local Area Networks is high because there is special
software required to make a server.
LANs are restricted in size and cover only a limited area.

Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN)

A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is a type of network that connects computers and devices
within a city or large campus, covering a larger area than a LAN but smaller than a WAN.

A MAN is larger than a LAN but smaller than a WAN.

MAN offers high-speed connectivity in which the speed ranges from 10-100 Mbps.
large coverage area from 5Km to 50 Km.
The security level in MAN is high and strict as compared to WAN.
It may be private or public network
Communication Infrastructure:
• CATV (Community Antenna Television Cable)
• Cables (Twisted, Coaxial)
• Optical Fibers
• Radio Links

Figure: Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

Wide Area Networks (WAN)

A Wide Area Network (WAN) is a network that spans a large geographical area, such as a
country or even the entire world. It connects multiple LANs and MANs, often using public
networks like telephone lines, satellites, or undersea cables.
Data Communication Chapter 1: Introduction BY: Er. MB Sah
 Span a large geographical area (Inter City, Inter Country, Inter Continental)
require the crossing of public right-of-ways
WAN consists of a number of interconnected switching nodes.
The data transfer rate is slow in comparison to LAN and MAN
Traffic congestion in Wide Area Network is very high.
Communication Infrastructure:
• Terrestrial Data Networks: Cables, Fiber Optics, Radio links etc.
• Satellite Based Data Networks: Geostationary Satellites
WANs have been implemented using following technologies:
• circuit switching
• packet switching
• frame relay
• Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)

Figure: Wide Area Network

(Note: PSTN: Public Switched Telephone Network- any switching system that provides
switching transmission facilities to many customers and PDN: Public Data Network- any
switching system that provides switching transmission facilities as well as storing facilities)

Simplified Network Architecture

Network architecture refers to the design and layout of a computer network. It defines how
devices are connected and how data is transmitted between them.

Components of network architecture

The main components of network architecture include the following:

Data Communication Chapter 1: Introduction BY: Er. MB Sah

 • Network topology: The physical or logical layout of the network, which determines how
devices are connected and how data is transmitted.
• The client: Requests and receives services or resources from a server.
• Routers: Find the best paths for smooth communication and connect networks and
devices.
• Switches: Connect devices like printers and servers. They receive the data and deliver it
to the target device.
• Protocols: Define the rules that explain how to exchange data and communicate across
the network.
• Transmission media: Data is transmitted through twisted-pair cables, coaxial cables,
fiber optic cables, or wireless media (radio waves).

Network Architecture Types

Computer networks can be classified based on architecture into two primary types:
• Peer-to-Peer Architecture
• Client/Server Architecture

Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Network

A peer-to-peer network is an easy-to-set-up network where each peer or node acts as client and
server. Every peer can share resources and data with other peers directly. Also, users can control
who can access their data and resources. This type of network is ideal for small-scale
applications usually up to at least 10 computers like:
• File sharing
• Messaging
• Gaming

Client-Server Architecture
In client-server architecture, there's a difference between both clients and servers. A server
receives client requests, processes them, and delivers them to the target point. It performs the
following tasks:
• Stores data.
• Ensures security.
• Manages resources
Client-service architecture supports efficient file sharing, database management, email, and web
hosting.

Hybrid Network Architecture

Hybrid network architecture combines the elements of both peer-to-peer and client-server
network architecture. In this network, the devices can act as both clients and servers. These days,
sensors are installed in almost all physical objects. The network of these objects is defined as
IoT, which is based on hybrid network architecture.

Cloud-Based Architecture
Cloud computing architecture designs a platform where users can access resources and services
on demand. It has two main parts:
• The front end is the client-side interface where users interact with cloud services.
• The back end includes the cloud provider's resources, such as data storage, services, and
applications.

Data Communication Chapter 1: Introduction BY: Er. MB Sah

The OSI Model
Open System Interconnection (OSI) is a reference model developed in 1984 by the
International Organization for Standardization that specifies how information from one
computer's software application passes through physical media to another computer's software
application.

The model defines a set of rules and requirements for data communication and interoperability
between different devices, products, and software in a network infrastructure. The OSI model is
split into seven fundamental layers (bottom to top): Physical, Data Link, Network, Transport,
Session, Presentation, and Application. The data flows from layer 7 to layer 1 at the sender side,
while from layer 1 to layer 7 at the recipient’s side.

Figure: ISO model

7 Layers of the OSI Model:

• Physical Layer: Handles raw data transmission between devices via cables or wireless
signals.
• Data Link Layer: Ensures error-free data transfer between nodes using frames and MAC
addresses.
• Network Layer: Routes data packets to their destination using IP addresses and routing
protocols.
• Transport Layer: Manages data flow, error checking, and delivery through TCP/UDP.
• Session Layer: Establishes, manages, and terminates communication sessions between
devices.
• Presentation Layer: Translates, encrypts, and compresses data for application use.
• Application Layer: Provides a user interface and supports services like email and file
transfer.
Data Communication Chapter 1: Introduction BY: Er. MB Sah
OSI Model Layers
Each layer in the OSI model performs a defined function essential to maintain smooth data flow
in a network.

7. Application Layer
The application layer is the topmost layer in the OSI model. The layer establishes
communication between the application on the network and the end user using it by defining the
protocols for successful user interaction. An excellent example of this layer is that of web
browsers.

Figure: Application Layer

Application layer protocols allow the software to direct data flow and present it to the user. Some
of the known protocols include Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), Simple Mail Transfer
Protocol (SMTP), and File Transfer Protocol (FTP).

Key functions:
• The application layer provides user interfaces (UI) that are key to user interaction
• Supports a variety of applications such as e-mail and remote file transfer

6. Presentation Layer
The presentation layer is often referred to as syntax or translation layer as it translates the
application data into a network format. This layer also encrypts and decrypts data before
transmitting it over the network. This layer is known to compress data received from Application
Layer to reduce the overall size of the data transferred.

Figure: Presentation Layer

Key functions:
• Performs data translation based on the application’s data semantics
• Encrypts and decrypts sensitive data transferred over communication channels
• Performs data compression to reduce the number of bits in exchanged data

5. Session Layer
The session layer establishes a communication session between communicating entities. The
session is maintained at a sufficient time interval to ensure efficient data transmission and avoid
wasting computing resources.

Figure: Session Layer

Data Communication Chapter 1: Introduction BY: Er. MB Sah
This OSI layer is also responsible for data synchronization to maintain smooth data flow. This
implies that in situations where large volumes of data are sent at once, Session Layer can break
down the data into smaller chunks by adding checkpoints.

Key functions:
• Opens maintains, and closes communication sessions
• Enables data synchronization by adding checkpoints to data streams

4. Transport Layer
The transport layer allows safe message transfer between the sender and the receiver. It divides
the data received from the session layer into smaller segments. It also reassembles the data at the
receiver side to allow the session layer to read it.

Figure: Transport Layer

Transport layer performs two critical functions: flow control and error control.
Flow control: It implies regulating data transfer speeds. It ensures that the communicating
device with a good network connection does not send data at higher rates, which is difficult for
devices with slower connections to handle.

Error control: It refers to the error-checking functionality to ensure the completeness of data. In
incomplete data cases, this layer requests the system to resend the incomplete data.

Transport layer protocols include transmission control protocol (TCP) and user datagram
protocol (UDP).
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP): It is connection oriented and ensures reliable data
transfer with error checking and flow control, making it suitable for applications like email and
web browsing

User Datagram Protocol (UDP): It is connectionless, offering faster, though less reliable,
transmission, suitable for application like online gaming and video streaming.

Key functions:
• Ensures completeness of each message exchanged between source and destination
• Maintains proper data transmission through flow control and error control
• Performs data segmentation and reassembling of data

3. Network Layer
The network layer enables the communication between multiple networks. It receives data
segments from the layer above, further broken down into smaller packets at the sender side. On
the receiver side, this layer reassembles the data together.

Figure: Network layer

Data Communication Chapter 1: Introduction BY: Er. MB Sah
The network layer also handles routing functionality, wherein the data transmission is
accomplished by choosing the best possible route or path that connects different networks and
ensures efficient data transfer. This network layer uses internet protocol (IP) for data delivery.

Key functions:
• Handles routing to recognize suitable routes from sender to receiver
• Performs logical addressing that assigns unique names to each device operating over the
network

2. Data Link Layer

The data link layer transmits data between two nodes that are directly connected or are operating
over the same network architecture. Typically, this layer takes data packets from network layer
and breaks them down into frames before sending them to the destination.

Figure: Data Link Layer

Data link layer is divided into two sub-layers: media access control (MAC) and logical link
control (LLC). The MAC layer encapsulates data frames transmitted through the network
connecting media such as wires or cables. In situations where such data transmission fails, LLC
helps manage packet retransmission.

The well-known data link layer protocol includes the Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) that
translates IP addresses to MAC addresses to establish communication between systems whose
addresses vary in bit length (32 bits vs. 48 bits).

Key functions:
• Detects damaged or lost frames and retransmits them
• Performs framing where data received from layer 3 is further subdivided into smaller
units called frames
• Updates headers of created frames by adding the MAC address of the sending device and
receiving device

1. Physical Layer:
The physical layer manages physical hardware and network components such as cables,
switches, or routers that transmit data.

In the context of data, Physical layer transmits data in the form of ones and zeros. Technically,
this layer picks up bits from the sender end, encodes them into a signal, sends the signal over the
network, and decodes the signal at the receiver end. Thus, without Physical layer,
communicating data bits across network devices through physical media is not possible.

Figure: Physical layer

Data Communication Chapter 1: Introduction BY: Er. MB Sah

Key functions:
• Synchronizes data bits
• Enables modulation (conversion of a signal from one form to another for data
transmission)
• Defines data transmission rate (bits/sec)
• Outlines the arrangement of network devices across different network topologies such as
bus, tree, star, or mesh topology
• Defines transmission modes such as simple or half-duplex mode

Advantages of the OSI Model

• OSI model is a generic tool supported by a wide range of device manufacturers. It serves
as a tool to develop any network model.
• Each layer is separate from the other layers. Changes in one layer do not impact the other
layers unless there are changes in the layer interface.
• The OSI model highlights the different tasks in each layer. It helps all the devices that
work with the OSI model to support each other.
• It is flexible.
• The model can work with both connection-oriented and connectionless services.

Disadvantages of the OSI Model

• It is a theoretical model. It does not consider the availability of appropriate technology,
which restricts its practical implementation.
• OSI model is complex in structure compared to a TCP/IP model.
• It is not as effective as the TCP/IP model.
• Some layers, including the session layer and presentation layer, have little functionality
when deployed practically.

Data Communication and Networking for Today’s Enterprise

Data Communication and Networking refers to the technologies, systems, and practices that
organizations use to exchange data securely, reliably, and efficiently across internal and external
networks. This is foundational to modern business operations, enabling communication,
collaboration, and access to resources in real-time, regardless of location.

Modern Technologies in Enterprise Networking

Technology Description
Cloud Computing Data and applications hosted on the cloud (e.g., AWS, Azure) require
efficient networking.
Wi-Fi 6 / 6E New standards improving wireless speed and capacity.
Fiber Optics High-speed backbone for enterprise data transmission.
5G Connectivity Supports mobile enterprise solutions with faster wireless speeds.
IoT Integration Networks support sensors and smart devices (e.g., in manufacturing,
logistics).
Network Uses software to manage networks, increasing flexibility and reducing
Virtualization costs.

Today’s trends in enterprises

Network Automation: Reduces human error speeds up configuration.
AI & Machine Learning in Networking: Predictive maintenance, traffic optimization.
Hybrid Cloud Networks: Seamless connectivity between on-premises and cloud services.
Edge Computing: Processing data closer to the source to reduce latency.

Data Communication Chapter 1: Introduction BY: Er. MB Sah

Importance of Data Communication and Networking for Today’s Enterprises
• Enables remote work and global collaboration.
• Supports real-time applications (e.g., video conferencing, VoIP).
• Facilitates data-driven decision-making via fast data access.
• Protects sensitive business data.
• Reduces downtime and improves business continuity.

Data Communication Chapter 1: Introduction BY: Er. MB Sah