Introduction to Language Acquisition Models
Language acquisition models explain how humans learn languages. These models help us understand
the processes involved, the mental abilities required, and how this knowledge can be applied in
teaching.
1. Theoretical Framework
This refers to the different theories that explain how people acquire language. The most common ones
include:
Behaviorism (Skinner) – Language is learned through imitation, practice, and reinforcement.
Nativism (Chomsky) – Humans have an inborn ability to learn language (Language Acquisition Device).
Interactionism (Vygotsky, Bruner) – Language develops through social interaction and communication
with others.
2. Cognitive Foundation
Language learning is connected to how the brain processes and stores information. Key ideas include:
Memory – Storing words and grammar rules.
Thinking Skills – Understanding meaning and structure.
Problem-Solving – Using language to express thoughts and respond to situations.
3. Pedagogical Relevance
These models help teachers design better lessons by:
Choosing methods that match students’ learning styles.
Creating interactive and engaging activities.
Encouraging communication to improve language skills.
Understanding these models allows educators to teach languages effectively, ensuring students
develop strong communication skills
Competitive Model of Language Acquisition
The Competitive Model, developed by Brian MacWhinney and Elizabeth Bates, explains how people
learn and use languages based on competition between different linguistic cues. It is mainly used to
understand bilingualism and second language acquisition.
Data-Driven Processing in the Competitive Model
In the Competitive Model, data-driven processing means that people learn a language by listening,
reading, and using it in real life, not by memorizing rules.
How It Works:
Learning by Exposure → The more you hear and see a language, the better you learn it.
Noticing Patterns → Your brain picks up common words and sentence structures.
Stronger Cues Win → The more often you hear something correctly, the more natural it feels.
First Language Influence → If your first language works differently, you might make mistakes at first.
Adjusting Over Time → With more practice, you learn to use the right words and structures.
Example:
A child hears "I am running" many times and learns it is correct.
If they hear "I am go" less often, they understand it is wrong.
Why It Matters in Learning:
You don’t need to memorize every grammar rule.
The more you use a language, the better you get at it.
Teachers should use real conversations and stories to help students learn naturally.
Simply put, language learning happens by using the language and noticing what works best!
Cognitive Mechanism in the Competitive Model
In the Competitive Model, a cognitive mechanism is how the brain processes and learns language
through experience and pattern recognition. It helps learners choose the correct words and grammar
based on what they hear and read.
How It Works:
The Brain Detects Patterns → Learners notice which words and sentence structures appear most often.
Cues Compete for Attention → Different language rules (word order, verb endings, sounds) compete,
and the brain picks the most useful ones.
Stronger Cues Become Automatic → The more a learner hears correct patterns, the more naturally they
use them.
First Language Influence → Learners may first use rules from their native language, but with practice,
they adjust to new ones.
Example:
A learner hears "He eats" many times and learns that adding -s is correct for third-person
singular.
If they say "He eat" and notice it sounds wrong in conversation, their brain slowly adjusts.
Why It Matters in Learning:
Language learning happens through practice and real use, not just memorization.
Teachers should give students lots of meaningful exposure to correct language use.
Over time, the brain automatically picks the right words and grammar based on what it has learned.
Simply put, the cognitive mechanism in the Competitive Model helps learners choose the right
words and structures by recognizing and strengthening patterns in language.
Rich Linguistic Input in the Competitive Model
Rich linguistic input means that learners need to hear and see a lot of language in real-life situations to
learn it well. The Competitive Model says that the brain learns language by recognizing patterns, so the
more varied and meaningful the input, the better the learning.
Key Features of Rich Linguistic Input:
Lots of Exposure → Learners need to hear, read, and use the language often.
Different Contexts → The language should come from conversations, stories, songs, videos, etc.
Natural Language Use → Instead of just grammar drills, learners should experience how the language is
used in real situations.
Feedback and Interaction → Talking with others helps learners recognize correct and incorrect usage.
Example:
A child learning English hears "I am eating" in a cartoon, from a teacher, and in a storybook.
Since they see it in different situations, they understand it better and use it correctly.
Why It Matters in Learning:
Helps learners pick up correct grammar and vocabulary naturally.
Improves listening, speaking, and reading skills at the same time.
Makes learning more effective and enjoyable.
Simply put, rich linguistic input means learning a language through lots of real and meaningful
exposure, not just memorizing rules.
1. Form-Function Mapping
Form-function mapping means that learners connect a word or grammar structure (form) with its
meaning or purpose (function) in communication. In the Competitive Model, this happens naturally as
learners hear and use language in real situations.
How It Works:
Learners notice patterns → They hear words and grammar structures repeatedly.
They connect form to meaning → They understand what the word or structure does in
They use it in communication → Over time, they apply the correct form based on its function.
Examples:
The word "ed" in "He walked" (form) signals past tense (function).
The word "s" in "She runs" (form) shows third-person singular (function).
The phrase "Can you help me?" (form) is used to make polite requests (function).
Why It Matters in Learning:
Helps learners use grammar and vocabulary correctly and naturally.
Shows that language is about meaning and communication, not just memorizing rules.
Encourages teachers to provide rich input so students see how forms work in real-life use.
Simply put, form-function mapping is how learners match words and grammar with their
meaning and purpose in communication!
2. Cue Validity
Cue validity refers to how useful and reliable a language feature (cue) is in understanding meaning. In
the Competitive Model, different cues (such as word order, verb endings, or intonation) compete, and
the brain relies on the most valid ones to learn language.
How It Works:
Different languages rely on different cues → Some languages depend on word order, while others focus
on verb endings or tone.
Cues compete for attention → Learners notice which cues are the most helpful in understanding
meaning.
Higher validity cues are used more → The brain naturally prioritizes the most useful cues.
Example:
In English, word order is a strong cue:
"The dog chased the cat" (valid cue: subject-verb-object order).
Simply put, cue validity is about how useful a language feature is for understanding meaning,
and the brain learns by focusing on the strongest cues!
3. Natural Order Hypothesis
The Natural Order Hypothesis, proposed by Stephen Krashen, says that people learn grammar rules in a
predictable order, no matter how they are taught. Some rules are learned early, while others take
longer.
Key Ideas:
Grammar is learned step by step → Some rules come naturally first, while others take time.
Same order for most learners → No matter the teaching method, learners tend to pick up certain
structures earlier than others.
Not based on difficulty → Some "hard" rules are learned early, while some "easy" rules take longer.
Speaking fluently takes time → Learners may understand a rule before they can use it correctly in
conversation.
Example (English Learners):
Learn "-ing" (playing, eating) early.
Learn plural "s" (cats, dogs) early.
Learn third-person "s" (he runs, she eats) later.
Learn past tense irregulars (went, ate) even later.
Why It Matters in Learning:
Teachers should not force grammar rules too soon—they should come naturally.
Focus on understanding and communication, not just memorization.
Learners should get lots of exposure to the language so they pick up grammar in order.
Simply put, the Natural Order Hypothesis means grammar is learned in a set sequence, and
some rules come earlier than others, no matter how they are taught!
The Monitor Model is a theory of second language acquisition developed by Stephen Krashen. It
explains how people learn languages and what helps or blocks the process. The model consists of five
key hypotheses:
1. The Acquisition-Learning Distinction comes from Stephen Krashen's Theory of Second Language
Acquisition and separates two ways people develop language skills:
Acquisition (Subconscious)
Happens naturally, like how children learn their first language.
Occurs through meaningful interaction and exposure.
Focuses on communication rather than rules.
Example: A child learns to say "I want water" just by hearing and using it in context.
Learning (Conscious)
A deliberate process, like studying grammar rules.
Requires formal instruction and memorization.
Focuses on knowing the rules rather than using them fluently.
Example: A student learns that "I went" is the past tense of "I go" by studying verb conjugations.
Key Idea:
Acquisition leads to natural fluency, while learning helps with understanding rules.
Krashen argues that acquisition is more effective for real communication.
2. The Monitor Hypothesis is one of Stephen Krashen’s five hypotheses in his Theory of Second
Language Acquisition. It explains the relationship between acquired (natural) and learned (conscious)
language knowledge.
Key Idea:
The Monitor is like an "editor" that checks and corrects language output using learned grammar rules.
It only works when:
The speaker has enough time to think.
They are focused on correctness.
They know the rule they need to apply.
Types of Monitor Users:
Over-users – Rely too much on the Monitor, leading to slow, hesitant speech.
Under-users – Rarely use the Monitor, often speaking fluently but with errors.
Optimal users – Balance fluency and accuracy by using the Monitor when needed.
Example:
A learner says: “Yesterday, I go to the store.”
If they have time, they might correct themselves using the Monitor: “Yesterday, I went to the store.”
Conclusion:
The Monitor helps improve accuracy but is not enough for fluency, which comes from language
acquisition.
3. The Natural Order Hypothesis says that people learn a language’s grammar in a fixed order, step
by step, no matter their first language. Some rules are learned earlier, while others come later, and this
order cannot be changed by teaching
Key Ideas:
Some grammatical structures are acquired earlier, while others come later.
This order is natural and cannot be changed by teaching grammar explicitly.
It applies to both first and second language acquisition.
Example in English:
Learners typically acquire -ing (running, eating) before third-person -s (she runs, he eats).
Past tense -ed (walked, played) is learned before irregular past forms (went, saw).
Implication:
Teaching should focus on meaningful communication, not forcing grammar in a rigid order.
Learners will acquire structures when they are ready, not just by memorizing rules.
4. The Input Hypothesis is one of Stephen Krashen’s five hypotheses in his Theory of Second Language
Acquisition. It states that learners acquire language best when they receive comprehensible input—
language that is slightly beyond their current level (i + 1).
Key Ideas:
“i” = what the learner already knows.
“i + 1” = new language just beyond their level but still understandable with context.
Learning happens naturally when exposed to meaningful, slightly challenging input.
Examples:
A beginner knows “I eat apples.” (i)
They hear “Yesterday, I ate a big red apple.” (i + 1)
The new part (past tense “ate” and adjectives) is understandable because of context.
Implications for Teaching:
Learners should get lots of exposure to slightly challenging but understandable language.
Grammar should not be forced—understanding comes first, and rules develop naturally.
Reading, listening, and interaction with fluent speakers are the best ways to acquire a language.
Key Takeaway:
Learners don’t need to memorize rules; they need rich, understandable input at the right level!
5. The Affective Filter Hypothesis is one of Stephen Krashen’s five hypotheses in his Theory of
Second Language Acquisition. It states that emotions and attitudes (such as anxiety, motivation, and
confidence) affect how well a person acquires a language.
Key Ideas:
A low affective filter (relaxed, motivated, confident) = better language learning.
A high affective filter (nervous, stressed, unmotivated) = blocked learning
Examples:
A student who feels safe and encouraged in class is more likely to speak and improve.
A student who is afraid of making mistakes may avoid speaking, slowing down learning.
Implications for Teaching:
Create a positive, low-stress environment.
Encourage mistakes as part of learning.
Use engaging and meaningful activities to keep students motivated.
Key Takeaway:
The brain learns better when relaxed—stress and fear block language acquisition!
Differences of the Two Models
1. Monitor Model = "Learn by listening, speaking comes naturally, and you can check grammar with the
Monitor."
2. Competition Model = "Learn by paying attention to different cues in a sentence to understand
meaning."
