LESSON – 1 COMPUTER SYSTEM

Data vs Information
• Data is just raw facts or observations.
• Information is data that has been processed to make it meaningful and useful.
• Data + Meaning = Information

Computer System
• A computer is an electronic device that can be programmed to accept data (input), process it and
generate result (output).
• A computer along with additional hardware and software together is called a computer system.
• A computer system primarily comprises of a central processing unit, memory, input/output devices,
and storage devices.
• All these components function together as a single unit to deliver the desired output.

A computer system is broadly divided into three units – Input Unit, Central Processing Unit (CPU) and
Output Unit.
Input unit helps the user to enter raw data and instructions into the computer system.
CPU performs the required operations as per given instructions.
Output unit produces meaningful results in the desired format for the user.
Every task given to a computer follows an Input- Process- Output Cycle (IPO cycle).

Block diagram of the computer is:-

Functionalities of a computer
1. Take data as input
2. Stores data/instructions
3. Process those stored data
4. Generate the output
5. Control all above steps

CPU
• The CPU is called the brain of the computer because it is the control center of the computer.
• As the CPU is located on a small chip, it is also called the microprocessor.
• CPU executes the required computation and then either stores the output or displays on the output
device.
• The CPU has three main components which are responsible for different functions – Arithmetic Logic
Unit (ALU) , Control Unit (CU) and Memory Unit (MU).
 Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): This unit is responsible for performing various Arithmetic (+,-,/,*) ,
relational (=,<=,>= ,>,<) and logical operation.
 Control Unit : This unit is responsible for the sequence of operations. It also controls the flow of data
and instructions in the computer system.
 Memory Unit: Memory attached to the CPU is used for storage of data and instructions and is called
internal memory.

 The CPU is given instructions and data through programs.

 The CPU then fetches the program and data from the memory and performs arithmetic and logical
operations as per the given instructions and stores the result back to memory.
 While processing, the CPU stores the data as well as instructions in its local memory, 'called'
registers.
 Registers are part of the CPU chip and they are limited in size and number.
 Different registers are used for storing data, instructions or intermediate results.

Input Devices
 The devices through which control signals are sent to a computer are termed as input devices. These
devices convert the input data into a digital form that is acceptable by the computer system.
 Some examples of input devices include keyboard, mouse, scanner, touchscreen, etc.,
 Specially designed braille keyboards are also available to help the visually impaired for entering data
into a computer. Besides, we can now enter data through voice, for example, we can use Google
voice search to search the web where we can input the search string through our voice.

Output Devices
 The device that receives data from a computer system for display is called output device.
 It converts digital information into human understandable form.
 For example, monitor, projector, headphone, speaker, printer, etc.
 A braille display monitor is useful for a visually challenged person to understand the textual output
generated by computers.
 A printer is the most commonly used device to get output in physical (hardcopy) form.

Evolution of Computer
The Von Neumann architecture –
• It consists of a Central Processing Unit (CPU) for processing arithmetic and logical instructions, a
memory to store data and programs, input and output devices and communication channels to
send/receive the output data.
• Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer (ENIAC) is the first binary programmable computer
based on Von Neumann architecture.

First Generation Computers (1940- 1956)

 Large sized computers were used.
 Had valves and vacuum tubes.
 Produced massive amount of heat.
 Storage capacity was very less.
  Mainly depended on machine language.
 Eg: - ENIAC , EDVAC , UNIVAC

Second Generation Computers (1956- 1963)

 Used transistors.
 Used less electricity and generated less heat.
 Faster than first generation.
 Size was smaller.
 Assembly language was used. Mnemonic codes
 Eg:- Honeywell 400 , IBM 7094 , UNIVAC 1108

Third Generation Computers (1964 – 1971)

 Used ICs (Integrated Circuits)
 Integrated circuits, or semiconductor chips, were large numbers of miniature transistors packed
on silicon chips.
 More faster than other 2 generations.
 This not only increased the speed of computers but also made them smaller, more powerful, and
less expensive.
 Size of computers were smaller. Mouse and keyboard are used for input.
 Operating system was used for better resource management.
 Computational time was greatly reduced.
 IC chips are difficult to maintain. Air conditioning is required.
 Eg:- IBM 360, IBM 370, PDP-8

Fourth Generation Computers (1971 to late 2000s)

 This technology is based on Microprocessor.
 Used VLSI (Very large-scale integration) technology. Millions of transistors were placed on a
single circuit chip.
 Graphics User Interface (GUI) technology was developed. Rise of the personal computer industry.
 Personal computers and their ability to create networks eventually would lead to the Internet in
the early 1990s.
 Creation of even smaller computers including laptops and hand-held devices.
 Increase in storage capacity and speed. Heat generated is negligible. Less maintenance is
required.
 All types of high-level language can be used in this type of computers.
 Air conditioning is required in many cases due to the presence of ICs.
 Eg:- IBM 4341 , DEC 10 , STAR 1000

Fifth Generation of Computers (late 2000s to present)

 This generation is based on artificial intelligence.
 Used ULSI (Ultra large-scale integration) technology, where millions of transistors were placed on
a single microchip.
 The aim of the fifth generation is to make a device which could respond to natural language
input and are capable of learning and self-organization.
 It is available in different sizes and unique features.
 It provides computers with more user-friendly interfaces with multimedia features.
 Eg:- features such as Apple’s Siri or Amazon’s Alexa , voice recognition application , robots

Memory Concepts:
• A computer system needs memory to store the data and instructions for processing.
• Memory is often known as Primary memory.
• It is not like human memory because data stored in this memory automatically erased out with
power cut off which cannot recover later.
• Every memory location has a definite address.
• Smallest unit / elementary unit of memory is a bit.
• The binary digits 0 and 1, which are the basic units of memory, are called bits.
• These bits are grouped together to form words.
• A 4-bit word is called a Nibble. Eg:- are 1001, 1010, 0010, etc.
• A two nibble word, i.e., 8-bit word is called a byte, for example, 01000110, 01111100, 10000001, etc.
• Bytes are grouped together to make bigger chunks or units of memory.

Memory Units:
8 bit = 1 byte
4 bits=1 Nibble
1024 byte = I Kilobyte
1024 Kilobyte = 1 Mega byte
1024 Megabyte = 1 Giga byte
1024 Gigabyte = 1 Terra byte
1024 Terra byte = 1 Peta byte
1024 Petabyte = 1 Exabyte
1024 Exabyte = 1 Zetta byte

Types of memory-
The computer memories can be divided into following categories:
• Primary Memory or Main memory
• Secondary memory or Auxiliary memory

✓ DRAM - Dynamic RAM

✓ SRAM – Static RAM
✓ PROM - Programmable Read Only Memory
✓ EPROM - Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory
✓ EEPROM - Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory

Primary Memory [Main memory]

o Primary Memory holds the data and instruction on which computer is currently working. It is volatile
in nature which means that when power is switched off, all the data in it is lost.
o Program and data are loaded into the primary memory before processing.
o The CPU interacts directly with the primary memory to perform read/ write operation.
o The total time taken to access Data from memory is known as Memory Access Time.
o Types of Primary Memory– Primary memory is generally of two types.
 RAM (Random Access Memory)
 ROM (Read Only Memory)

RAM ROM
The stored data is non-permanent. The stored data is permanent.
It is Volatile in nature. It is non-Volatile in nature.
It comprises of high-speed memory. ROM is slower than the RAM to a large extent.
The CPU is capable of accessing the data The CPU is incapable of accessing the data stored on
stored on it. the ROM. The data has to be transferred to the RAM
before it can be accessed by the ROM.
Quite expensive. Relatively inexpensive.

Secondary Memory / Non Volatile Memory–

 Primary memory has limited storage capacity and so a computer system needs auxiliary or secondary
memory to permanently store the data or instructions for future use.
 The secondary memory is non-volatile and has larger storage capacity than primary memory.
 It is slower and cheaper than the main memory.
 Examples of secondary memory devices include Hard Disk Drive (HDD), CD/ DVD, pen drive, blu ray
disk, Memory Card, etc.

Cache Memory
 RAM is not very fast and so sometimes the CPU will have to slow down because of it.
 To speed up the operations of the CPU, a very high speed memory is placed between the CPU and
the primary memory known as cache.
 It holds frequently requested data and instructions so that they are immediately available to the CPU
when needed.
 Cache memory is used to reduce the average time to access data from the Main memory.
Note-
 When the CPU needs to access memory, it first examines the cache. In case the requirement is met, it
is read from the cache, otherwise the primary memory is accessed.

System or Communication Bus

In computer architecture, a system bus is a system that transfers data and instructions between
computer components or between computers.
4 types – Data bus, Control bus, Address bus, I/O bus
▪ Data bus carries data.
▪ Control Bus carries instructions.
▪ Address Bus carries memory address.
▪ The bus connected with input/output units is called I/O bus.

Data Capturing, Storage, and Retrieval

• To process the data, we need to first input or capture the data. This is followed by its storage in a file
or a database so that it can be used in the future.
• Whenever data is to be processed, it is first retrieved from the file/ database so that we can perform
further actions on it.
Data Capturing
• It involves the process of extracting information from a document and converting it into data
readable form by a computer.
• Data may be captured using bar coder, OCR, RFID, Wireless, GPS, Sensor keyboard, remote sensors
on earth orbiting satellites etc.
Data Storage
• It is the process of storing the captured data for processing later.
• Now-a-days data storage has become a challenging task.
• Data keeps on increasing with time. Hence, the storage devices also require to be upgraded
periodically.
• In large organisations, computers with larger and faster storage called data servers are deployed to
store vast amount of data.
Data Retrieval
• It involves fetching data from the storage devices, for its processing as per the user requirement.
• Minimising data access time is crucial for faster data processing.

Data Deletion and Recovery

• One of the biggest threats associated with digital data is its deletion.
• The storage devices can malfunction or crash down resulting in the deletion of the stored data.
• Users can accidentally erase data from storage devices, or a hacker/malware can delete the digital
data intentionally.
• In case data gets deleted accidentally or corrupted, there arises a need to recover the data.
• Recovery of the data is possible only if the contents/memory space marked as deleted have not been
overwritten by some other data.
• Data recovery is a process of retrieving deleted, corrupted & lost data from secondary storage
devices.
• Methods to recover data-
✓ Recover Deleted Files with Deleted File Recovery Software
✓ Recover Deleted Files from Recycle Bin
✓ Restore Deleted Files from the Previous Version
• These concerns can be avoided by limiting access to the computer system and using passwords for
user accounts and files, wherever possible.
• There is also an option of encrypting files to protect them from unwanted modification.

Hardware and software

• Hardware refers to the physical components of the computer system which can be seen and touched.
For example, keyboard, printer, monitor etc.
• Software is a set of instructions and data that makes hardware functional to complete the desired
task.
• Both are interdependent of each other.
• A document or image stored on the hard disk or pen drive is referred to as a softcopy.
• Once printed, the document or an image is called a hardcopy.

Source and object code-

Source code: A program written in a high-level language is called source code or source program. The
source code is to be converted into object code and then executed.
Object code : [ Machine code] A program in machine language is called object code.
Types of Software
Based on its use & application , software is divided to :
1. System software
The software that controls the internal computer operations is a system software .
Eg: - reading data from input devices, checking system components etc.
2. Application software -
It is the set of programs necessary to carry out operations for a particular application.
System software Application software

BIOS Utility software

Operating system General purpose software

Device drivers Specific purpose software

Language processors Developer tools

BIOS
• It stands for Basic Input / Output system and is also called the system BIOS.
• When you power-up your system, the BIOS is the first program to run.
• Functions:
✓ To check power levels
✓ Run some quick tests that evaluate the health of the system's hardware
✓ Load drivers and start the boot process for the operating system.

Operating system –
• It is the most important program that runs on a computer.
• It is an interface between hardware and user.
• OS is a set of system programs that controls and coordinates the operations of a computer system.
• Without an operating system, a computer is useless.
• It enables the computer hardware to communicate and operate with the computer software.
Types of an operating system
Single user – Allows one user to operate the computer and run different programs on the computer.
Eg :- MS Dos
Multi user - Allows two or more users to operate the computer and run programs at the same time
on the computer. Eg :- Unix, Linux, Windows
Real Time – It responds to input instantly. Found in robotics, complex multimedia and animations.
Eg:- Lynx, Windows CE

Device driver-
It is a System software that acts like an interface between the Device and the user or the Operating
System.
All computer accessories like Printer, Scanner, Web Camera, etc. come with their own driver software.
It help the operating system and other application software to communicate with those devices.

Language processor- [Translators]

A computer system understands only machine language or Low Level Language (LLL).
This language is not easy for a programmer to study and program in it.
Programming languages or High Level languages (HLL) has been developed for easy programming
by the programmers.
High level programming languages (Basic, C, C++, JAVA, etc) can easily be translated into machine
language and vice versa using language translators .
Types of translators – Assembler , Interpreter , Compiler.
Assemblers-
Assembly language consists of letter abbreviations called mnemonic codes.
An assembler is a program that converts programs in assembly language to machine language.
Compilers-
A compiler is a language processor which converts the entire program written in high level language
into machine language in one go.
All the errors are reported together along with the line numbers for debugging.
After all the errors are removed, the program can be recompiled to obtain the object program.
Interpreter
Interpreter converts a HLL program into machine language line by line as well as executes it.
If there is any error in the program, translation and execution stops and the error is reported for
debugging.
The conversion and execution resumes only after that error is rectified. This is a slow process and
consumes high memory.

Utility software –
❖ A utility is a small program that provides an addition to the capabilities provided by the operating
system.
❖ It keeps the computer system efficient and trouble free.
Some examples are:
a) Compression utility software –
This is used to compress or reduce the storage size of any program.
b) Backup utility software –
Helps to take the backup copy of data or information into another storage device or computer.
c) Disk De-fragmentation utility software -
• When a large file cannot be stored in a single location, it has to be split up and stored as
fragments that are logically linked. They will be stored in a scattered way in noncontiguous
locations. This type of a fragmented file will slow down the system.
• Disk De-fragmentation utility software will speed it up by rearranging such files in contiguous
locations. It improves the system performance.
d) Antivirus detection and protection software –
This software provides the user with a virus free environment to work in by protecting the system
against the entry of unwanted programs. Eg:- Norton, Mcafee, Kaspersky
e) Text editor –
This software helps to create, store or edit a basic text.
Eg:- Notepad, Notepad 2

General purpose-
• It is the software that performs basic tasks that most users would need to do. Also known as
packages.
• Some common categories are- Word Processing Software , Spreadsheets, Presentation tools,
Database Management software

Specific purpose-
• These software are made for doing specific tasks.
• Some application software are made for performing specific tasks generally used by the institutions,
corporate, business houses, etc. and such software come under the category of specific purpose
application software.
• Some examples are: - Payroll Management System, Hotel Management , Reservation System , Report
Card Generator
Developer tools-
While developing a software , a programmer requires a series of software developing tools like code
editor, debugger and compiler.
A platform where all these software developing tools are bundled into a package is known as
Integrated Development Environment (IDE).

Proprietary or Free and Open Source Software

• Free and Open Source Software (FOSS) –
FOSS programs are those that have licenses that allow users to freely run the program for any purpose,
modify the program as they want, and also to freely distribute copies of either the original version.
Eg:- Python, Libreoffice, Openoffice, Mozilla Firefox, etc.

• Freeware –
Freeware are also often distributed free of charge, but the source code is typically not made available.
Eg:- Skype, Adobe Reader etc

• Proprietary software –
Proprietary software consists of software that is licensed by the copyright holder under very specific
conditions.
Examples of proprietary software include Microsoft Windows, Tally, Quickheal etc.