COMPUTER NETWORK

Type of connection
1. Dial-up Connection
• What it is: Connects to the internet using a telephone line and a modem.

How Dial-up Connection Works

1. Uses regular telephone lines (the same lines used for voice calls).
2. To connect to the internet, your computer uses a modem to dial a phone number of your Internet
Service Provider (ISP).
3. This process is like making a phone call — it establishes a connection between your computer and
ISP’s server.
4. During this connection:
o The phone line is busy (you can’t make or receive regular phone calls).
o The connection speed is very slow (up to 56 Kbps).
5. When done, you hang up to disconnect.

Disadvantage:
It uses the same audio frequencies as voice calls, so it can’t send lots of data at once.
Limited bandwidth and high interference.
Each session requires dialing and establishing the connection, adding delay.
2. What is Broadband Connection?
Broadband refers to high-speed internet access that is always on and faster than traditional dial-up
connections.

It allows you to transmit multiple signals simultaneously over a single medium, providing fast and
reliable internet for homes, offices, and businesses.

Types of Broadband Connections:

Type Description Typical Use

Home internet in many

DSL (Digital Subscriber Line) Internet over phone lines, faster than dial-up
places

Cable Broadband Internet through cable TV lines Cable internet providers

High-speed internet
Fiber Optic Broadband Uses light through fiber cables, very fast
providers

Satellite Broadband Internet via satellites Remote and rural areas

Smartphones, mobile
Wireless Broadband Mobile networks like 4G, 5G
hotspots

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DSL (Digital Subscriber Line)
Also uses telephone lines, but it works on higher frequency bands that voice calls don’t use.
You have a DSL modem connected to your phone line and your computer.
The modem separates voice signals (low frequencies) and data signals (high frequencies).
This lets you use the phone and internet at the same time without interference.
The connection is always on — no need to dial.
Speeds are much faster (from 1 Mbps to 100+ Mbps depending on DSL type).
3. Broadband Connection
• What it is: High-speed internet via cable, DSL, or fiber.
• Always connected and widely used.
• Used in: Homes and businesses for fast internet.
• Example: Fiber-optic internet or cable internet.

What is Transmission Media?

Transmission Media is the physical path or medium through which data travels from one device to another
in a network.

It’s like the "road" that carries your information — could be wires, cables, or even wireless signals through
the air.

Types of Transmission Media

1. Guided (Wired) Media

Devices are connected using physical cables (like Ethernet cables).

Advantages: Reliable, fast, stable.
Disadvantages: Limited mobility, needs cables.
Use: Office LANs, home desktops, servers.

Types of guided media:

a. Twisted pairs Cable: Twisted cables (or twisted pair cables) consist of two insulated copper wires twisted
around each other. The twisting helps reduce electromagnetic interference (EMI) from external sources and crosstalk
between neighboring pairs in the same cable.

There are two main types:

1. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) – No extra shielding; commonly used in LANs.

2. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) – Has an additional foil or braided shielding to protect against EMI.

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Uses of Twisted Cables

Twisted pair cables are widely used in:

• Telephone lines
• Local Area Networks (LANs) – e.g., Ethernet cables (Cat 5e, Cat 6)
• DSL internet connections
• Security camera systems
• Data and voice transmission

Advantages of Twisted Cables

1. Reduces Interference – Twisting cancels out electromagnetic interference and crosstalk.

2. Low Cost – Especially UTP cables; cheaper than coaxial or fiber-optic cables.
3. Flexible and Lightweight – Easy to install and manage.
4. Widely Supported – Compatible with most networking equipment.
5. Scalable – Available in various categories for different data rates and distances.

Disadvantages of Twisted Cables

1. Shorter Distance Transmission – Limited effective range (usually up to 100 meters).

2. Lower Bandwidth Compared to Fiber Optic – Not ideal for very high-speed, long-distance
communication.
3. Susceptible to EMI (for UTP) – Unshielded cables can be vulnerable in high-interference
environments.
4. Signal Degradation – Over long distances, signal strength drops without repeaters.

b. Coaxial cable

A coaxial cable (or coax cable) is a type of electrical cable consisting of a central conductor, surrounded
by an insulating layer, a metallic shield, and an outer plastic cover.

The design helps to protect the signal from external interference and allows high-frequency signals to be
transmitted over long distances with less loss.

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Uses of Coaxial Cables

Coaxial cables are commonly used for:

• Cable television (TV) connections

• Internet connections (broadband)
• CCTV systems (security cameras)
• Connecting antennas to radios or TVs
• Old Ethernet networks (10Base2 or 10Base5)

Advantages of Coaxial Cables

1. Less Signal Loss – Better signal quality over longer distances than twisted pair cables.
2. High Bandwidth – Supports higher data transmission rates.
3. Good Shielding – Metallic shielding reduces electromagnetic interference.
4. Durable – Tough outer cover protects from damage.

Disadvantages of Coaxial Cables

1. Expensive – More costly than twisted pair cables.

2. Less Flexible – Thicker and harder to bend or install.
3. Difficult to Install and Maintain – Requires proper connectors and careful handling.
4. Not Ideal for Modern LANs – Mostly replaced by twisted pair or fiber optics in computer networks.

c. Fibre Optic Cable

A Fibre Optic Cable is a type of network cable made of thin strands of glass or plastic (called fibers) that
transmit data using light signals, not electrical signals.

It is one of the fastest and most reliable methods of data transmission.

Structure of Fibre Optic Cable:

Outer Jacket (protection)

Buffer Coating (absorbs shocks)

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Cladding (reflects light inward)

Core (glass or plastic – carries light)

Uses of Fibre Optic Cable

• Internet connections (broadband/Fiber-To-Home)

• Telecommunications (voice and video calls)
• Cable TV networks
• Medical imaging (endoscopy)
• Military and aerospace communications
• High-speed data centers

Advantages of Fibre Optic Cable

1. Very High Speed – Much faster than copper cables.

2. Long Distance Transmission – Can transmit data over kilometers with minimal loss.
3. Immune to Electromagnetic Interference – Since it uses light, not electricity.
4. Better Security – Harder to tap into; more secure.
5. High Bandwidth – Can carry large amounts of data.
6. Expensive – Higher cost than twisted pair and coaxial cables.
7. Fragile – Glass fibers can break easily if not handled properly.
8. Difficult to Install and Repair – Requires special tools and skilled technicians.
9. Delicate Bending – Cannot be bent too much; might cause signal loss.

2. Unguided (Wireless) Media

• Devices connect using radio waves or other wireless signals.

• Advantages: Mobility, convenience, no cables.
• Disadvantages: Can be affected by interference, security risks.
• Use: Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, cellular data (3G/4G/5G).

Type Description Use Case

Radio Low frequency waves that can cover large

Wi-Fi, AM/FM radio, mobile phones.
Waves distances.

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 Type Description Use Case

Microwaves High-frequency waves, require line-of-sight. Satellite communication, point-to-point links.

Remote controls, short-distance device

Infrared Short-range, line-of-sight signals.
communication.

Web services
1. WWW (World Wide Web)
• The WWW is a system of interlinked web pages accessed via the internet.
• It uses web browsers to access websites and display content.
• It's not the internet itself, but a service on top of the internet.
• Example: When you open www.google.com, you're using the WWW to access a web page.

2. HTML (HyperText Markup Language)

• HTML is the main language used to create and structure web pages.
• It defines things like headings, paragraphs, images, links, etc.
• Example: A web page's structure is written in HTML so browsers know how to display the content.

3. XML (eXtensible Markup Language)

• XML is used to store and transport data in a structured format.
• It doesn’t display content like HTML, but helps transfer data between systems.
• Example: Websites and apps often use XML to exchange data with servers (like weather updates).

4. Domain Name
• A domain name is the human-readable address of a website.
• It replaces a numeric IP address.
• Example: www.example.com is a domain name.

5. URL (Uniform Resource Locator)

• A URL is the full web address used to access a specific web page or file.
• It includes the protocol, domain, and sometimes a path.
• Example:
https://www.example.com/about.html

➢ https = protocol
➢ www.example.com = domain
➢ /about.html = specific page
6. Website
• A website is a collection of related web pages under one domain name.
• Stored on a web server.
• Example: www.wikipedia.org is a website with thousands of related pages.

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7. Web Page
• A web page is a single page of a website.
• It’s created using HTML and can contain text, images, videos, etc.
• Example: The homepage of Google is a web page (www.google.com).

8. Web Browser
• A web browser is software that lets you view and interact with web pages.
• It interprets HTML, CSS, JavaScript, and displays websites.
• Examples: Chrome, Firefox, Safari, Edge.

9. Web Server
• A web server is a computer that stores web pages and delivers them to users when requested.
• It responds to requests from browsers.
• Example: When you visit a site, your browser requests the page from a web server, which sends it
back.

10. Web Hosting

• Web hosting is a service that stores your website's files on a server and makes them available
online.
• Hosting providers rent space on their servers.
• Examples of hosting companies: GoDaddy, Bluehost, Hostinger.

11. Domain Name Resolution

• This is the process of converting a domain name (like google.com) into its corresponding IP
address.
• Done automatically by a system called DNS.
• Example: google.com → 142.250.64.110

12. DNS (Domain Name System)

• DNS is like the internet’s phonebook.
• It translates domain names into IP addresses so that browsers can load websites.
• Example: When you type www.facebook.com, DNS tells your browser the correct IP address to
connect to.
What is a Protocol?
In computer networks, a protocol is a set of rules that define how data is transmitted and received between
computers or devices.
These rules define:
• How data is structured
• How data is transmitted
• How devices handle errors or lost data
Without protocols, devices wouldn’t be able to understand each other — like trying to speak English to
someone who only understands Japanese.
➢ Types of Network Protocols
1. TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)
• Purpose: Provides reliable, ordered, and error-checked delivery of data.

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 • How it works:
o Breaks data into packets.
o Numbers them to keep them in the correct order.
o Waits for confirmation (acknowledgement) that the packets were received.
o Retransmits if any packet is lost or corrupted.
Used in: Web browsing (HTTP), email (SMTP), file transfers (FTP).
2. UDP (User Datagram Protocol)
Purpose: Sends data quickly without guaranteeing delivery.
How it works:
o Sends packets directly.
o Doesn’t check for errors or re-send lost data.
o Less overhead = faster, but unreliable.
Used in: Online gaming, video streaming, VoIP (voice calls).
3. SCTP (Stream Control Transmission Protocol)
• Purpose: Transfers messages reliably with support for multiple streams.
• How it works:
o Like TCP but allows multiple streams in one connection.
o Avoids "head-of-line" blocking (delay due to one lost packet).
• Real-life Example: Like sending multiple conversations in one phone call, each on its own channel.
• Used in: Telecom networks, signaling systems (like 4G/5G).
➢ What is Multiple Stream?
Multiple streaming (or multi-streaming) refers to the ability of a protocol to send more than one stream
of data at
the same time over a single connection.
Let's break it down:

In most network protocols (like TCP), when you send data, it's sent in a single stream. If one part gets
delayed or lost, everything else has to wait until it’s fixed — this is called "head-of-line blocking."
But with multiple streaming, you can send different pieces of data in separate "lanes". If one stream is
delayed, the others can continue without being blocked.
Example:

Imagine a road with one lane (like TCP):

• If one car breaks down, all the cars behind must stop and wait.
Now imagine a road with multiple lanes (like SCTP with multi-streaming):
• If one car breaks down in one lane, cars in other lanes can keep moving.
Real-World Example (SCTP Multi-Streaming):

If you're on a video call:

• One stream can carry audio,
• Another can carry video,
• Another can send chat messages.
If the video stream lags for a moment, your audio and chat messages keep flowing normally.
4. SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
• Purpose: Sends outgoing emails from client to server or between servers.

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 • How it works:
o Your email app uses SMTP to send a message to the server.
o The server then uses SMTP to deliver the email to the recipient’s server.
Used in: Gmail, Outlook, Yahoo Mail (for sending mail).
5. POP3 (Post Office Protocol v3)
• Purpose: Retrieves emails from the server to your computer.
• How it works:
o Downloads emails and often deletes them from the server.
o No sync between devices.
• Real-life Example: Like downloading all your mail and emptying your mailbox.
Used in: Basic email setups (desktop email software).
Use POP3 if:
• You only use one device for email.
• You want to store emails locally and save server space.
6. IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol)
• Purpose: Accesses email directly on the server.
• How it works:
o Email stays on the server.
o You can read, organize, or delete from multiple devices.
• Real-life Example: Like checking your mailbox but leaving the letters inside.
• Used in: Gmail, Outlook, Apple Mail (on multiple devices).
• Use IMAP if:
o You use multiple devices (phone, laptop, etc.).
o You want your emails to be synced and accessible anywhere.
o You prefer to manage emails directly on the server.
7. TELNET
• Purpose: Remotely access another computer's command line.
• How it works:
o Text-based interface.
o Allows command execution on a remote device.
o Not secure — transmits data in plain text.
• Real-life Example: Like logging into a computer in another city using a black-and-white screen.
• Used in: Remote management (mostly replaced by SSH today).
8. FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
FTP is a standard network protocol used to transfer files from one computer to another over a network
— usually the Internet.
It lets you upload, download, rename, delete, and move files between computers.
How FTP Works (Simply)
• There are two main sides:
o The Client: The person or computer requesting files (you).
o The Server: The remote computer storing the files.
• You connect to the FTP server (usually by logging in).
• You then upload or download files between your computer and the server.
Login & Access
• FTP usually requires a username and password.

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 • Some servers allow anonymous access (no login required).
How You Can Use FTP
You can use:
1. FTP Clients (software) – like FileZilla, WinSCP, or Cyberduck
2. Command Line – using ftp commands
3. Web Browser – typing something like:
ftp://ftp.example.com
FTP Use Cases
Use Case Description
Upload a website Developers upload files to a web server using FTP
Download large files Files like software, videos, or datasets are shared via FTP
Backup data Backup tools can send your files to a remote FTP server
Share files Organizations or teams share files through FTP servers
9. IP (Internet Protocol)
• Purpose: Routes data from source to destination using IP addresses.
• How it works:
o Every device has a unique IP address.
o Data travels in "packets" and IP decides the best path.
• Real-life Example: Like writing an address on a letter to send it across cities.
• Used in: Everything on the internet — it's the core of networking.
10. PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol)
• Purpose: Connects two network nodes directly.
• How it works:
o Used over dial-up, serial, or direct connections.
o Manages IP address assignment, error checking.
• Real-life Example: Like connecting two phones with a cable to talk privately.
• Used in: VPNs, older dial-up internet.
11. HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol)
• Purpose: Transfers web pages from server to browser.
• How it works:
o Client (browser) requests a webpage.
o Server responds with HTML, images, etc.
• Real-life Example: Like ordering a book online, and the website delivers the content.
• Used in: Web browsing (http://example.com).
12. HTTPS (HTTP Secure)
• Purpose: Same as HTTP but encrypted using SSL/TLS.
• How it works:
o Ensures data can't be read or changed by others.
o Shows a lock in browser.
• Real-life Example: Like using a sealed and locked envelope instead of an open postcard.
• Used in: Secure sites — banking, shopping, login forms.
13. IRC (Internet Relay Chat)
• Purpose: Enables group chatting in real-time.

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 • How it works:
o Users connect to channels (chat rooms).
o Text-only, fast, and lightweight.
• Real-life Example: Like a massive group chat room with nicknames.
• Used in: Developer communities, tech support, gaming.
14. VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol)
• Purpose: Make voice calls over the internet.
• How it works:
o Converts voice into digital data packets.
o Sends it via internet instead of telephone lines.
• Real-life Example: Like talking over WhatsApp instead of a phone call.
• Used in: Skype, Zoom, WhatsApp, Google Meet.
15. SIP (Session Initiation Protocol)
• Purpose: Establishes and manages voice/video communication sessions.
• How it works:
o Starts and ends calls.
o Handles call transfer, hold, conference.
• Real-life Example: Like a receptionist who connects you to the right person.
• Used in: VoIP systems, softphones, video call apps.

SWITCHING TECHNIQUES
Switching techniques refer to the methods used to route data from a source to a destination through a
network. There are three main switching techniques:
1. Circuit Switching

Definition:
Circuit Switching is a method of communication where a dedicated physical path (or circuit) is
established between the sender and receiver for the entire duration of the communication.

It is like making a phone call – once the line is connected, it remains open until the call ends.

How Circuit Switching Works:

Step 1: Circuit Establishment

• A dedicated path is set up between the sender and the receiver through the network.
• All routers/switches along the path reserve the necessary resources.
• No other user can use this path until the session ends.

Step 2 Data Transfer

• Once the connection is established, data flows continuously and in order.

• All data follows the same fixed path.

Step 3 Circuit Termination

• After the communication is complete, the circuit is disconnected.

• Resources (like bandwidth) are released for other users.
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Example:

A traditional landline telephone call is a perfect example. When you dial a number:

• A dedicated path is set up.

• You talk without interruptions.
• The connection is cut when you hang up.

Advantages:
• Reliable and consistent performance once the circuit is established.
• Minimal delay during transmission.
Disadvantages:
• Wastes resources if the circuit is idle.
• Setup time can be long.
• Not efficient for bursty data traffic (like in the internet).
Example: Traditional landline phone call.

2. Message Switching

Definition:
Message Switching is a communication method where the entire message is sent as a single unit, stored
temporarily, and then forwarded to the next device (node) in the network — this is also known as Store-
and-Forward technique.

There is no dedicated path between sender and receiver.

How Message Switching Works:

1. Sender creates a complete message, including destination address.

2. The message is sent to the first node (router or switch) in the network.
3. The node stores the message in its memory.
4. Then, it forwards the complete message to the next node.
5. This process continues until the message reaches the final destination.

Think of it like mailing a letter: the post office stores it temporarily, then sends it to the next office, and so on

Advantages of Message Switching

1. Efficient Use of Network – No need to reserve a path.

2. Can Handle Large Messages – Entire message is sent as one unit.
3. More Reliable – If one path fails, message can take another route.
4.

Disadvantages of Message Switching

1. Storage Required – Each node needs enough memory to store the full message.
2. Delay – Message can be delayed due to waiting at intermediate nodes.
3. Not Good for Real-Time Communication – Like voice or video calls, due to delay.

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2. Packet Switching

Definition:
Packet Switching is a method of data transmission where the message is broken into small packets, and
each packet is sent independently over the network.

Each packet may take a different route to reach the destination, where all the packets are reassembled into
the original message.

How Packet Switching Works:

1. The original message is divided into packets.

2. Each packet contains:
o A piece of the message
o The destination address
o A sequence number (to reassemble in correct order)
3. Packets are sent through the network using any available route.
4. At the destination, packets are reassembled in the correct order.

Where is it Used?

Packet switching is used in:

• Internet communication (emails, websites)

• Online games
• Video conferencing (Zoom, Google Meet)
• VoIP calls (e.g., WhatsApp, Skype)

Advantages of Packet Switching

1. Efficient Use of Network – No need to reserve a path.

2. Faster Transmission – Multiple packets can travel simultaneously.
3. Reliable – If one route fails, packets can be sent via another.
4. Supports Many Users – Good for modern networks like the Internet.

Disadvantages of Packet Switching

1. Delay in Reassembling – Packets may arrive out of order.

2. Complex Routing – Requires intelligent routers and software.
3. Not Ideal for Real-Time Data (without extra tech) – May cause jitter or delay without additional
protocols (like QoS).

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