Network & Communication (DCO-312)

Submitted To: Submitted by:

Mr. Hannan Mansoor Md Atif Khan
Computer Engineering Roll no : 22DCS8026
Year : 3rd

Computer Engineering Section

University Polytechnic
Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi-110025

pg. 1
 INDEX

PRACTICAL DETAILS:

Practical Date of Date of Marks/ Teacher’s

Practical name
No. performance checking grades Signature

To study wired and

1. wireless media.

To study the
connecting devices of
2. physical layer i.e.
Repeater and Hub.

To study data link

layer device i.e.
3.
Bridge and Switch.

To study about switch

and router in network
4.
layer.

To study about
5. network interfacing
card.

To study about RJ45

(ethernet cable) color
6. coding and all the
theory.
To study about
Cryptography and
7. implement
substitution cipher.

pg. 2
 LAB-1

Object: - To study wired and wireless media.

Wireless media (Unguided Media): -Wireless media refers to the transmission of audio, video,
or other forms of media without the need for physical cables.

o Wireless transmission is a form of unguided media. Wireless communication involves no

physical link established between two or more devices, communicating wirelessly.
o Wireless signals are spread over in the air and are received and interpreted by appropriate
antennas.
o When an antenna is attached to electrical circuit of a computer or wireless device, it converts
the digital data into wireless signals and spread all over within its frequency range.
o The receptor on the other end receives these signals and converts them back to digital data.

 A little part of electromagnetic spectrum can be used for wireless

transmission.

 There are some three types of wireless media that is.

1. Wireless Communication Protocols
2. Wireless Streaming Services
3. Wireless File Transfer

1. WIRELESS COMMUNICATION PROTOCOL: -

• Bluetooth Audio: Bluetooth technology enables wireless audio signal interchange between devices
such as speakers and smartphones.

• Wireless Audio Protocols (e.g., Airplay): Certain platforms provide exclusive wireless audio
streaming options, such as Apple’s Airplay. Some platforms, like Apple’s Airplay, offer proprietary
wireless audio streaming solutions.

2. WIRELESS STREAMING SERVICES: -

• Wireless Streaming Platforms: Services like Netflix, Spotify, or YouTube enable users to consume
media content without the need for physical media storage.

pg. 3
 3. WIRELESS FILE TRANSFER: -
• Near Field Communication (NFC): Allows for close-proximity wireless data transfer between
compatible devices.

• Wireless Transfer Apps: Applications like Airdrop (iOS) or Nearby Share (Android) facilitate
wireless file sharing between devices.

 WIRED MEDIA (guided media): -

Three types of coaxial cable connectors would be: -

1. BNC (Bayonet Neill-Concelman) Connectors
2. F-Type Connectors
3. N-Series Coaxial Connectors.

1. BNC connectors:

i. BNC connectors are commonly used in video and RF (radio frequency) applications.
ii. They have a bayonet-style coupling mechanism, which allows for quick and secure
connections.
iii. BNC connectors are known for their excellent signal transmission capabilities, especially in
high-frequency applications.
iv. They are widely used in professional video equipment, such as cameras, monitors, and video
switchers.
v. BNC connectors are available in various versions, including BNC male and BNC female, and
can be easily adapted to different types of cables.

2. F type connectors: -

i. The F type connector is named after its threaded "F" male or female connection.
ii. It is designed to provide a secure and reliable connection for coaxial cables used in TV and
video applications.
iii. F type connectors are commonly used for connecting coaxial cables to TVs, set-top boxes,
modems, and other audio/video equipment.
iv. They are known for their excellent signal quality, low signal loss, and high frequency
capabilities.
v. F type connectors are easy to install and remove, making them a popular choice for home
entertainment setups.

3. N series coaxial connectors: -

i. N series connectors are commonly used in high-frequency applications, such as

telecommunications and wireless systems.
ii. They have a threaded coupling mechanism that provides a secure and reliable connection.
iii. N series connectors are known for their excellent performance at higher frequencies, with low
signal loss and high-power handling capabilities.

pg. 4
 iv. These connectors are often used in applications that require high reliability and durability, such
as military and aerospace systems.
v. N series connectors are available in different versions, including N male and N female, and can
support a wide range of coaxial cable sizes.

 Types of Optical Fibres: -

The types of optical fibres depend on the refractive index, materials used, and mode of propagation of
light.

 The classification based on the refractive index is as follows:

Step Index Fibres: It consists of a core surrounded by the cladding, which has a single uniform
index of refraction.

Graded Index Fibres: The refractive index of the optical fibre decreases as the radial distance
from the fibre axis increases.

 The classification based on the materials used is as follows:

Plastic Optical Fibres: The polymethylmethacrylate is used as a core material for the transmission
of light.

Glass Fibres: It consists of extremely fine glass fibres.

The classification based on the mode of propagation of light is as follows:

Single-Mode Fibres: These fibres are used for long-distance transmission of signals.
Multimode Fibres: These fibres are used for short-distance transmission of signals.
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  Types of twisted pair cables: -
1. Shielded twisted pair (STP)
2. Unshielded twisted pair (UTP)

1. Shielded twisted pair (STP): -

i. Shielded twisted pair cables are a type of copper cable used for transmitting data signals.
ii. They consist of pairs of insulated wires that are twisted together, which helps to reduce
electromagnetic interference (EMI) and crosstalk between the wires.
iii. In addition to the twisted pairs, STP cables have an overall shielding layer made of foil or
braided metal, which provides further protection against external interference.
iv. The shielding layer helps to minimize the impact of electromagnetic fields and external noise,
ensuring better signal quality and data transmission.
v. Shielded twisted pair cables are commonly used in environments with high levels of
electromagnetic interference, such as industrial settings or areas with a lot of
electrical equipment. shielded twisted pair (STP) cables. Here are 5 points about shielded
twisted pair cables, explained in points:

Fig: Shielded twisted pair (STP)

2. Unshielded twisted pair (UTP): -

i. Unshielded twisted pair cables consist of pairs of wires that are twisted together.
ii. They do not have an additional shielding layer like shielded twisted pair cables.
iii. UTP cables are commonly used in Ethernet networks for data transmission.
iv. They are cost-effective and easy to install, making them popular for various applications.
v. However, UTP cables are more susceptible to electromagnetic interference compared to
shielded cables.

Fig: Unshielded twisted pair (UTP)

pg. 6
 LAB-2

Object: To study the connecting devices of physical layer i.e. Repeater and Hub.
Network Devices: Network devices, also known as networking hardware, are physical devices that
allow hardware on a computer network to communicate and interact with one another. For example: -
Repeater, Hub, Bridge, Switch, Routers, Gateway, Brouter, and NIC, etc.

1. Repeater: - A repeater is a device used to extend the range of a network or signal.

 A repeater receives a signal and amplifies it to retransmit it over a longer distance.

 It helps overcome the loss of signal strength that occurs over long distances.
 Repeaters are commonly used in telecommunications, such as in wireless networks or telephone
lines.
 They can be used with different types of signals, including audio, video, and data.
 Repeaters work by receiving the signal, cleaning it up, and then retransmitting it.
 They can be connected in a series to cover even longer distances.
 Repeaters are often used in areas with weak or unstable signal reception.
 They can improve the quality and reliability of the signal.
 Repeaters are typically easy to install and require minimal configuration.
 They are an effective solution for extending the reach of a network or signal.

2. HUB: - A hub is a networking device that allows multiple devices to connect to a network. Hub is
a generic term, but commonly refers to a multiport repeater. It can be used to create multiple levels of
hierarchy of stations. The stations connect to the hub with RJ-45 connector having maximum segment length
is 100 meters. This type of interconnected set of stations is easy to maintain and diagnose. Figure shows
how several hubs can be connected in a hierarchical manner to realize a single LAN of bigger size with many
nodes.

pg. 7
  It serves as a central point for data transmission between devices on a network.
 Hubs operate at the physical layer (Layer 1) of the OSI model.
 They receive data from one device and broadcast it to all other devices connected to the hub.
 Hubs are often used in small home or office networks.
 They can support both wired and wireless connections.
 Hubs have multiple ports to connect devices using Ethernet cables.
 They are simple to set up and require minimal configuration.
 However, hubs have limited bandwidth and can cause network congestion.
 Hubs have largely been replaced by switches, which offer improved performance and security.

Fig: HUB

 Types of HUBS:

 Active Hub: It's like a power center that can clean, boost, and send signals between devices. It
helps extend the distance between devices in a network.

 Passive Hub: This hub collects signals from devices and sends them to the network without
boosting or cleaning them. It doesn't help extend the distance between devices.

pg. 8
  Intelligent Hub: This hub is like an active hub, but it also has extra features. It can be managed
remotely, meaning someone can monitor the network traffic and configure each port in the hub. It
also provides flexible data rates to devices in the network.

o Difference between Repeater and Hub:

Parameter Hub Repeater

Hub is defined as a network device A repeater is defined as a network

that connects multiple devices device that is used for extending the
Definition
coming from different branches network where devices are
into a single network. connected with ethernet.

The data packets that are received Repeaters amplify and retransmit
Main
at the hub are forwarded to all the the signals of incoming packets to
Function
connected devices in the network. the other side of the segments.

Number
Hub has multiple ports. Repeater has two ports.
of ports

Hub addresses the incoming packet The repeater addresses the

Addressing
to all other ports. incoming packet to another port.

A Hub device is not considered an The repeater is an intelligent device

Intelligence
intelligent device. as compared to the hub.

Hub makes use of the same domain Repeater does not isolate the
Isolation of
and sends the packet to all other network traffic as the received
network
nodes, therefore, isolating the packet is being sent only to the
traffic
network traffic. desired system or port.

Hub is less expensive than a Repeaters are more expensive than

Cost
repeater. hubs.

There are three types of Network

Hub: There are two types of Repeaters:
Types 1. Active Hub 1. Analog Repeaters
2. Passive Hub 2. Digital Repeaters
3. Intelligent Hub

pg. 9
 LAB-3

Object: - To study data link layer device i.e. Bridge and Switch.
Bridge:
 A bridge is a network device that connects two or more LANs (local area networks) to form a larger
LAN.
 In the OSI model, a bridge operates at layer 2, or the data link layer. This is primarily to inspect
incoming traffic and determine whether it should be filtered or forwarded.
 A bridge is like a connector between two different network segments. It receives data packets from
one segment and checks the MAC addresses to determine where to send them.
 If the destination MAC address is on the same segment, the bridge doesn't forward the packet. But if
the destination MAC address is on a different segment, the bridge forwards the packet to that segment.
 Network bridging refers to the process of aggregating networks. A bridge connects the various
components, making them appear to be part of a single network.

Fig. Bridge

Functions of Bridges:

i. In an OSI model, bridges connect and enable communication between two distinct networks at
the data link layer

ii. Bridges can also expand the physical size of a network

iii. Bridges are also used to connect a LAN segment to another LAN segment in another location
via a synchronous modem connection

iv. Bridges are used to split large, busy networks into smaller, interconnected networks to improve
performance

v. Bridges broadcast data to every node, like hubs and repeaters. however, continues to update the
MAC (media access control) address table to identify new segments

vi. To create a larger virtual LAN (VLAN), bridges can also link smaller VLANs

vii. To connect wireless networks or networks with a wireless segment, a wireless bridge is employed.

pg. 10
Switches:

 Switches, on the other hand, are like smarter bridges.

 They have multiple ports and can connect many devices within a LAN. When a switch receives a data
packet.

 It looks at the MAC address and checks its internal table to find the port where the destination device
is connected. Then, it forwards the packet only to that specific port, reducing unnecessary network
traffic.

 A switch is a multiport bridge with a buffer and a design that can boost its efficiency (a large number
of ports imply less traffic) and performance.

 It is a data link layer device. The switch can perform error checking before forwarding data, which
makes it very efficient as it does not forward packets that have errors and forward good packets
selectively to the correct port only.

 In other words, the switch divides the collision domain of hosts, but the broadcast domain remains
the same.

Fig. Switch

Functions of Switch:

i. A switch only distributes information to the one device for which it was designed, including some
other switch, a router, or a user’s computer, rather than to several devices in a network.
ii. Networks are critical for supporting companies, offering connected services, and enabling
collaboration, among other things. As they link devices that share resources, network switches are a
vital component of all networks.
iii. A network switch works at the data link Layer 2 of the architecture of Open Systems Interconnection
(OSI).
iv. It accepts packets from access points linked to physical ports and then sends them only via the ports
going to a destination device.

pg. 11
  Difference Between Bridge and Switch:

S.NO. Switch Bridge

It is basically a device which is

It is a device which is responsible for channelling the data that
responsible for dividing a single
1. is coming into the various input ports to a particular output
network into various network
port which will further take the data to the desired destination.
segments.

2. A switch can have a lot of ports. A bridge can have 2 or 4 ports only.

The bridge performs the packet

The switch performs the packet forwarding by using
3. forwarding by using software, so it is
hardware such as ASICS hence, it is hardware based.
software based.

The switching method in case of a switch can thus be store, The switching method in case of a
4.
forward, fragment free or cut through. bridge is store and forward.

A bridge cannot perform the error

5. The task of error checking is performed by a switch.
checking.

6. A switch has buffers. A bridge may not have a buffer.

Summary
Both bridges and switches help improve network performance by reducing collisions and optimizing data
transmission. They are essential components in building efficient and reliable computer networks.

pg. 12
 LAB-4

Object: - To study about switch and router in network layer.

 Switch: -

 The Switch is a network device that is used to segment the networks into different subnetworks
called subnets or LAN segments.

 It is responsible for filtering and forwarding the packets between LAN segments based on MAC
address.

 Switches have many ports, and when data arrives at any port, the destination address is examined
first, and some checks are also done and then it is processed to the devices. Different types of
communication are supported here like unicast, multicast, and broadcast communication.

Features of Network Switches:

 It operates in Data Link Layer in OSI Model.

 It performs error checking before forwarding data.
 It transfers the data only to the device that has been addressed.
 It operates in full duplex mode.
 It allocates each LAN segment a limited bandwidth.
 It uses Unicast (one-to-one), multicast (one-to-many), and broadcast (one-to-all) transmission
modes.
 Packet Switching techniques are used to transfer data packets from source to destination.
 Switches have a more significant number of ports.

Fig. Switch

 Router:
pg. 13
  A router operates at the network layer (Layer 3) of the OSI model. It is responsible for forwarding
data packets across different networks by determining the best path for them to reach their
destination.

 Routers examine the destination IP address of incoming packets and decide where to send them next
based on routing tables and algorithms. They make decisions autonomously or based on
configurations set by network administrators.

 Routers maintain routing tables, which contain information about available paths to various
destinations and metrics to determine the best route. These tables are updated dynamically through
routing protocols or manually configured by administrators.

 Routers play a crucial role in dividing large networks into smaller subnets, which helps in improving
network performance, reducing congestion, and enhancing security through segmentation.

 Routers facilitate the interconnection of different types of networks, such as LANs (Local Area
Networks), WANs (Wide Area Networks), and the Internet. They enable communication between
devices on disparate networks by forwarding packets between them.

 Routers support QoS(Quality of Service) mechanisms to prioritize certain types of traffic over
others based on predefined policies. QoS(Quality of Service) ensures that critical applications, such
as voice and video, receive sufficient network resources and bandwidth to maintain performance
and reliability.

Fig. Router

 Major Difference between Router and Switch:

pg. 14
 Router Switch

I. Router is used to connect multiple I. Switch is used to connect multiple devices in a

networks network

II. Switch maintain MAC address table for

II. Router maintain Routing table
decision making

III. It supports Network Address

III. It does not support NAT
Translation(NAT)

IV. Routers works at Network Layer IV. Switch works at Data Link Layer

V. Routers are more expensive then Switches V. Switches are less expensive then Routers.

LAB-5
pg. 15
Object: - To study about network interfacing card.

A Network Interface Card (NIC), also known as a network card, network adapter, LAN adapter, or physical
network interface, is a hardware component crucial for connecting a computer or other devices to a network.
It serves as the interface between a computer and the local area network (LAN) or the internet, enabling the
device to communicate with other computers or network devices. NICs can be used with both wired and
wireless networks, depending on the type of network and the specific requirements of the device.

Key Functions and Features:

1. Data Conversion: NICs convert data into a format that can be transmitted over the network. For wired
networks, this typically involves converting digital data into electrical signals (for Ethernet cables) or light
signals (for fiber optics). For wireless networks, data is converted into radio signals.

2. Physical Connection: In the case of wired networks, the NIC provides a physical port (such as an
Ethernet RJ-45 port) to connect the device to the network via a cable. For wireless networks, the NIC
includes an antenna for sending and receiving radio signals.

3. Addressing: Each NIC has a unique identifier known as a MAC (Media Access Control) address. This
address is used to identify devices on a local network and ensure that data reaches the correct destination.

4. Error Detection and Correction: NICs can detect errors in data transmission and, in some cases, correct
these errors to ensure reliable communication.

5. Speed and Duplex Settings: NICs support various transmission speeds (measured in Mbps or Gbps) and
duplex settings (full duplex or half duplex), affecting the rate and efficiency of data transfer.

6. Management of Data Flow: NICs manage data flow between the computer and the network,
implementing protocols to control when and how data is sent and received to avoid collisions and ensure
efficient use of the network

Types of Network Interface Cards:

- Wired NICs: These are used for Ethernet connections, connecting to the network via Ethernet cables.
They are common in desktop computers, servers, and some laptops.

pg. 16
- Wireless NICs: These connect to Wi-Fi networks and are commonly found in laptops, smartphones,
tablets, and other mobile devices.

- USB Network Adapters: These external devices can be plugged into a USB port, providing a network
connection to computers or devices that lack built-in NICs or to add wireless capabilities.

- Fiber Optic NICs: Used for connections over fiber optic cables, offering high-speed data transmission
over long distances, commonly used in enterprise and data center environments.

 The objective of a Network Interface Card (NIC) can be summarized as follows:

1. Enable Network Connectivity: The primary objective of a NIC is to provide a physical interface for a
computer or device to connect to a network, allowing it to communicate with other devices on the same
network or across different networks.

2. Data Transmission and Reception: It facilitates the transmission and reception of data over a network.
This involves converting digital data from a computer into signals that can be transmitted over networking
cables or wirelessly, and vice versa.

pg. 17
3. Provide a Unique Identifier: Each NIC comes with a unique Media Access Control (MAC) address,
which serves as a hardware identifier for the device on the network. This is crucial for addressing, filtering,
and allowing devices to be uniquely identified on a network.

4. Support Various Network Standards and Protocols: NICs are designed to support various networking
standards (such as Ethernet, Wi-Fi, etc.) and protocols to ensure broad compatibility and interoperability
between different devices and network architectures.

5. Manage Data Flow: NICs are responsible for managing data flow to and from a computer, ensuring
efficient, error-free communication. This includes error checking, data packet sequencing, and controlling
the flow to avoid congestion and data loss.

6. Adapt to Network Speeds: NICs are capable of operating at various speeds (e.g., 10/100/1000 Mbps for
Ethernet NICs) and can adjust their operation based on the speed of the network they're connected to,
ensuring optimal performance.

7. Enable Advanced Networking Features: Modern NICs support advanced features such as VLAN
tagging, Quality of Service (QoS) for traffic prioritization, and power management features for energy
efficiency.

In summary, the objective of a NIC is to ensure that a device can effectively communicate over a network
by handling the physical connection, data conversion, transmission, and management tasks required for
network communication. This enables devices to share resources, access services, and participate in
networked computing environments.

Components of Network Interface Card

Network Interface Card contains the following essential components -

1. Memory

Memory is one of the most important components of the NIC. It is used to store the data during
communication.

2. Connectors

Connectors are used to connect the cables to the Ethernet port.

3. Processor

Processor is used for converting the data message into a suitable form of communication.

4. Jumpers

Jumpers are the small device that is used to control the communication operations without the need of any
software. It is also used to determine settings for the interrupt request line, I/O address, upper memory block,
and type of transceiver.

5. Routers

To provide wireless connectivity, routers are used.

pg. 18
6. MAC address

MAC address is also referred to as a physical network address. It is a unique address that is present to the
network interface card where ethernet packets are communicated with the computer.

pg. 19
 LAB-6

Object: - To study about RJ45 (ethernet cable) color coding and all the theory.

Theory:
 Ethernet is a technology that allows the connection of multiple devices in a Local Area Network
(LAN) OR Wide Area Network(WAN).
 The Ethernet has also some protocols that are also responsible for effective communication between
the devices in the wired network.
 RJ stands for Registered Jacks. They are mainly used to connect to different types of networking
media.
 Different types of RJ are available, including RJ11, RJ45, RJ48, RJ61 etc.
 These jacks are generally used for Ethernet Networking.

RJ45 Connector:
 RJ45 stands for Registered Jack 45 and is the most commonly used connector in wired networks.
 The jacks are mainly used to connect to the Local Area Network (LAN). It was earlier devised for
telephones but is now widely used in Ethernet Networking.
 The 45 in RJ45 basically stands for the listing number. The width of RJ45 is usually greater than that
of the telephone cables or other Registered Jacks.
 Compared to additional jacks the bandwidth provided by these is high and the range is usually 10
Gpbs.  Because of speed and enhanced security, they are used to connect personal computers to
servers, routers etc.
 These jacks are mostly used in Star Topology.

Structure of RJ45 connector:

 RJ45 has a transparent plastic structure and is an 8-pin connector.
 It is an 8P8C connector and the number of wires that can be connected is 8.
 The jacks are mostly used with Shielded Twisted Pair cables or Unshielded Twisted Pair cables.
 If we take a close look at the end of the Ethernet cable connected to the RJ45 we can see the 8 wires
out of which 4 wires are solid coloured and 4 are strip coloured.
 The classification of RJ45 is done based on the wiring. Some of them include Cat 5e, Cat 6, and Cat
7.

pg. 20
  The colours of RJ45 wiring include White/Green, Green, White/Orange, Blue, White/Blue, Orange,
White/Brown, and Brown.
 Now coming to the colouring of the wires two colour code schemes are used. On is RJ45 T568 A and
RJ45 T568 B. They are different because of the position change of orange and green wires.
 In RJ45 T568 A the green color wiring comes before orange wiring and in the case of RJ45 T568 B
orange wiring comes before green wiring.
 Another difference between the two is RJ45 T568 A provides backward compatibility with the old
wirings whereas RJ45 T568B offers more resistance to noises in the signals.

 Color-Coding of the Wires in the Connectors:

Pin T568B T568A

1 white with orange stripe white with green stripe

2 orange green

3 white with green stripe white with orange stripe

4 blue blue

5 white with blue stripe white with blue stripe

6 green orange

7 white with brown stripe white with brown stripe

8 brown brown

pg. 21
  Advantages of RJ45:

 RJ45 connectors provide much greater speed.

 They are cheaper as compared to other connectors.  Supports much greater bandwidth (100
Mbps).
 They are very reliable.

 Disadvantages of RJ 45:
 RJ45 have compatibility issues. They are not compatible with other connectors.
 These connectors are neither weatherproof therefore they do not have much durability.

 Characteristics of RJ45 Connector:

1. Excellent sealing and waterproof performance. to ensure that the RJ45 connector can be used in
multiple environments.

2. Provides strong signal Transmission due to complete shielding system.

3. Provides safety locking system that ensures that connector is not detached while in use.

4. Transfers information at a very high-speed that helps to achieve maximum data transmission
function in the shortest time possible.

Conclusion:

The connectors comes in two standards, T568A and T568B. A cable can have same or
different connectors at the both ends. Based upon the type of cables like, Straight and
crossover. with straight over both the ends have same connectors either T568A or T568B
and in crossover they both the ends are different.

pg. 22
 LAB-7

Object: - To study about Cryptography and implement substitution cipher.

 Cryptography:

 Cryptography is the study and practice of techniques for secure communication in the presence
of third parties called adversaries.
 It deals with developing and analyzing protocols that prevents malicious third parties from
retrieving information being shared between two entities thereby following the various aspects
of information security.
 Secure Communication refers to the scenario where the message or data shared between two
parties can’t be accessed by an adversary.
 In Cryptography, an Adversary is a malicious entity, which aims to retrieve precious information
or data thereby undermining the principles of information security. Data Confidentiality, Data
Integrity, Authentication and Non-repudiation are core principles of modern-day cryptography.

1. Confidentiality refers to certain rules and guidelines usually executed under confidentiality
agreements which ensure that the information is restricted to certain people or places.

2. Data integrity refers to maintaining and making sure that the data stays accurate and consistent
over its entire life cycle.

3. Authentication is the process of making sure that the piece of data being claimed by the user
belongs to it.

4. Non-repudiation refers to the ability to make sure that a person or a party associated with a
contract or a communication cannot deny the authenticity of their signature over their document
or the sending of a message.

 Consider two parties Atif and Bill Gates. Now, Alice wants to send a message “M” to Bill
Gates over a secure channel. So, what happens is as follows:
o The sender’s message or sometimes called the Plaintext, is converted into an
unreadable form using a key k. The resultant text obtained is called the Ciphertext.
This process is known as Encryption.
o At the time of received, the Ciphertext is converted back into the plaintext using
the same Key k, so that it can be read by the receiver. This process is known as
Decryption.
pg. 23
 Atif (Sender) Bill Gates (Receiver)
C = E (M, k) ----> M = D (C, k)

Here, C refers to the Ciphertext while E and D are the Encryption and Decryption
algorithms respectively. Let’s consider the case of Caesar Cipher or Shift Cipher as an
example. As the name suggests, in Caesar’s Cipher each character in a word is replaced
by another character under some defined rules. Thus, if A is replaced by D, B by E and so
on. Then, each character in the word would be shifted by a position of 3. For example:

Plaintext : ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
Ciphertext : XYZABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVW

Types of Cryptography:

There are several types of cryptography, each with its own unique features and applications. Some of the
most common types of cryptography include:
1. Symmetric-key cryptography: This type of cryptography involves the use of a single key to encrypt
and decrypt data. Both the sender and receiver use the same key, which must be kept secret to maintain the
security of the communication.

2. Asymmetric-key cryptography: Asymmetric-key cryptography, also known as public-key

cryptography, uses a pair of keys – a public key and a private key – to encrypt and decrypt data. The public
key is available to anyone, while the private key is kept secret by the owner.

pg. 24
Hash functions: A hash function is a mathematical algorithm that converts data of any size into a fixed-
size output. Hash functions are often used to verify the integrity of data and ensure that it has not been
tampered with.

 Applications of Cryptography:

Cryptography has a wide range of applications in modern-day communication, including:

 Secure online transactions: Cryptography is used to secure online transactions, such as online
banking and e-commerce, by encrypting sensitive data and protecting it from unauthorized
access.

 Digital signatures: Digital signatures are used to verify the authenticity and integrity of digital
documents and ensure that they have not been tampered with.

 Password protection: Passwords are often encrypted using cryptographic algorithms to protect
them from being stolen or intercepted.

Military and intelligence applications: Cryptography is widely used in military and intelligence
applications to protect classified information and communications.

Challenges of Cryptography:

While cryptography is a powerful tool for securing information, it also presents several challenges,
including:
 Key management: Cryptography relies on the use of keys, which must be managed carefully to
maintain the security of the communication.

 Quantum computing: The development of quantum computing poses a potential threat to

current cryptographic algorithms, which may become vulnerable to attacks.

 Human error: Cryptography is only as strong as its weakest link, and human error can easily
compromise the security of a communication.

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