Computer Network:

Introduction to Communication
Communication:
Exchange of data and information between sender and receiver through a medium.
•Telecommunication:
Art of communicating at a distance using media like telephone, radio, and television.
•Data Communication:
Use of computers and the internet (telephone lines) to send and receive data.

Basic Elements of Communication

•Sender (Source): Creates the message.

•Medium: Carries the message.
•Receiver (Sink): Receives the message.
•Data: The information/message being transmitted.
•Protocol: Rules for carrying the data.
 Modes of Communication
Simplex: One-way communication (e.g., radio, TV).
Half Duplex: Two-way communication, but one at a time (e.g., walkie-
talkie).
Full Duplex: Two-way communication simultaneously (e.g., mobile
phones).
Computer Networks
• Definition and Importance
• Group of computers interconnected to share hardware, software, and resources.
• Advantages of Computer Networks
• Hardware Sharing:
• Software Sharing
• Centralized Control and Management
• Speedy Communication
• Backup and Recovery
• Flexible Access
• Work Group Computing
• Disadvantages of Computer Networks
• Virus Transfer:.
• Less Reliability:
• Security Issues:
• Expense:
• Need for Technical Manpower:
Types of Networks
Based on Geographical Area
• PAN (Personal Area Network): owned by a single person
• LAN (Local Area Network): Covers small areas (e.g., a building).
• MAN (Metropolitan Area Network): Covers a city or town. E.g. Nepal
Telecom’s network
• WAN (Wide Area Network): Covers large areas, even globally (e.g., the
internet).
 Based on Architecture:
• Peer-to-Peer: Equal access for all computers, no central server.
File sharing via SHAREit, Zapya, or Bluetooth, Torrents like BitTorrent or uTorrent, Multiplayer LAN games

• Client-Server: Central server provides services and controls the

network.
Websites (Google, Facebook), Online games (Free Fire, PUBG servers), School attendance server system
Transmission Media :
 Guided (Wired) Media
• Twisted Pair Cable: Pairs of wires twisted to reduce interference.
• Co-axial Cable: High-speed data transmission, used in TV
broadcasting.
• Fibre Optics: Transmits data as light, high-speed, and secure.
Unguided Media:
Unguided (Wireless) Media
• Microwave: Used for long-distance transmission, requires line-of-sight.
• Satellite: Space-based microwave transmission, used for global communication.
• Radio Wave: Can operate on multiple frequencies, doesn't require line-of-sight.
• Infrared: Uses light for short-range communication (e.g., TV remotes).
 Network
Topologies:
•Bus Topology: All computers connected to a single cable.
Advantages: Easy setup, low cost, Less cable required
Disadvantages: If the cable fails, the network goes down.
Data collisions are common; not suitable for heavy traffic.

•Ring Topology: Computers connected in a circular fashion.

Advantages: Equal access, high speed.
Disadvantages: A break in the cable affects the whole network.

•Star Topology: All computers connected to a central hub.

Advantages: Easy to add/remove devices, reliable.
Disadvantages: Hub failure affects the network, higher cost.

•Mesh Topology: Computers randomly connected.

Advantages: High reliability, fast data transmission.
Disadvantages: Expensive, complex setup.

•Tree (Hybrid) Topology: Combination of two or more topologies (e.g., star and bus).
Advantages: Flexible, scalable.
Disadvantages: Complex to manage and configure.
Chapter 2: Computer Network Part 2
Network inter-connecting devices:
• Network inter-connecting devices are used to establish and operate
the network. We need several hardware components in order to
setup a network environment. Various devices and components are
used for interconnecting several units of a network. Some of them are
explained below:
1.Network Interface Card (NIC):
• Purpose: Connects a computer to a network.
• Functions: Prepares data for transmission, sends/receives data,
controls data flow.
• Unique Feature: Each NIC has a unique MAC address.

2. Hub: (PNB)
• Purpose: Connects multiple computers in a star topology.
• Functions: Accepts, amplifies, and broadcasts data.
• Limitation: Cannot filter network traffic.

3. Bridge:
• Purpose: Connects similar network segments.
• Functions: Passes data packets based on destination addresses, reduces
traffic on busy networks.
4. MODEM:
• Purpose: Converts digital signals to analog and vice versa.
• Functions: Modulation (digital to analog) and demodulation (analog to digital).
• Usage: Necessary for transmitting digital data over traditional phone lines.
5. Router: (NIP)
• Purpose: Connects different networks.
• Functions: Finds the best transmission path, manages routing tables.
• Operation Layer: Network layer of the OSI model.
6. Switch: (DIF)
• Purpose: Directs data frames to their destination.
• Functions: Creates direct connections between sender and receiver, also called an intelligent hub.
7. Gateway:
• Purpose: Connects networks with different architectures.
• Functions: Acts as a translator between networks with incompatible
protocols.
8. Repeater:
• Purpose: Amplifies signals to extend transmission distance.
• Functions: Receives, amplifies, and retransmits signals.
9. Bluetooth:
• Purpose: Wireless data exchange over short distances.
• Functions: Creates Personal Area Networks (PANs), high-security data
exchange.
10. Wi-Fi:
• Purpose: Wireless connectivity for devices within a limited range.
• Functions: Uses radio waves for communication, depends on access
points for coverage.
•Hub: Sends data to all devices in a network.
•Switch: Sends data only to the specific device it is meant for.
•Router: Directs data between different networks and connects to the internet.
•Modem: Connects a network to the internet by converting signals.
•Bridge: Connects two separate networks and filters data between them.

Simple Explanation:

•Hub: Think of it as a loudspeaker that broadcasts a message to everyone.

•Switch: Like a telephone operator who connects your call to the right person.
•Router: A mailman who delivers letters to different neighborhoods.
•Modem: A translator that converts signals from your internet provider to a language your devices
can understand.
•Bridge: A bridge that connects two separate roads, allowing cars (data) to travel between them
smoothly.
What are Transmission Impairments?
Problems that occur during data transmission over a network, causing
delays and data loss, which can result in buffering or poor
communication quality.

Transmission impairments are issues like delays, data loss, and

interference that affect network communication quality. They can be
caused by jitter, echo, cross talk, distortion, noise, and low
bandwidth.
Summary
• Jitter: Variation in packet arrival time.
• Echo & Singing : Signal bouncing back & Continuous feedback tone.
• Crosstalk: Interference between channels.
• Bandwidth: Maximum data transfer capacity.
• Attenuation: Signal weakening over distance.
• Noise: Unwanted interference.
• Distortion: Altered signal shape.
Causes of Transmission Impairments
• Jitter: Delays in sending data packets due to route changes or network
congestion, affecting audio and video quality.
• Echo and Singing: Repeated signals due to feedback, causing disturbances
in communication.
• Cross Talk: Signals on one channel affecting another, reducing
communication quality.

• Bandwidth: The data transmission rate; low bandwidth can cause network
congestion and impairments.

• Attenuation: Attenuation is the loss of signal strength in networking cables

or connections. Caused during long distance transfer or external
interference.
• Noise: Interference during data transmission, often due to Electro
Magnetic Interference (EMI).

• Distortion: Changes in the original signal, leading to poor reception of

data.
 Basic Terms Used in Computer Networks:
1. IP Address:
• Definition: An Internet Protocol (IP) address uniquely identifies devices on a network using Internet protocols.
• Format: Written in decimal (e.g., 192.168.10.1) and binary (e.g., 11011000.00011011.00111101.10001001) for
computer communication.
• Functions: Identifies both the network and specific host within that network.
2. MAC Address:
• Definition: Media Access Control (MAC) address uniquely identifies network adapters (NICs).
• Format: Typically a 12-digit hexadecimal number (e.g., 00:A0:C9:14:C8:29).
• Functions: Assigned by NIC manufacturers, stored in ROM, and used for device identification on a network.

Key Differences

IP Address: Can change, used for locating devices on the

internet or a larger network.

MAC Address: Permanent, used for identifying devices

within a local network.
3. Intranet:
• Definition: A private network using Internet protocols (TCP/IP) to securely share information within an
organization.
• Characteristics: Accessed only by organization employees, often secured by firewalls.
• Advantages: Enhances workforce productivity, facilitates timely access to information, and improves
communication within the organization.
4. Extranet:
• Definition: An extension of an intranet that allows external users to access private network resources
securely.
• Access: Requires valid user credentials (user ID, password) for entry.
• Usage: Combines features of the public Internet and the closed intranet for authorized external users.
• Intranet: A private network for internal use within an organization,
like a school's private website for students and teachers.
• Extranet: An extension of the intranet that allows external users
limited access, like parents accessing certain school information.
 Differences Between Intranet and Internet:

Intranet: Internet:

Network Type Private Public

Users Organization employees General public

Tasks Everyday internal work Information seeking

Information Type Detailed, internal reports Varied, general information

Information Amount Less Tremendous

Bandwidth Needs Low to mid Higher

 Protocol:
What are Network Protocols?
A network or communication protocol is like a set of rules that computers follow
to talk to each other. These rules help computers understand how to send and
receive data. Without these rules, computers wouldn't know how to
communicate properly.
Why are Protocols Important?
Identify Computers: Protocols help computers recognize each other on a
network.
Format Data: They decide how data should look during transmission.
Process Data: They guide how data is handled before it reaches its destination.
Compatibility: Computers can only talk to each other if they use the same
protocol.
Common Network Protocols
• TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol):
• TCP: Ensures reliable data transmission by tracking sent data and re-sending
any lost data.
• IP: Handles the actual sending of data packets across the receivers network.
• Example: When you visit a website, TCP/IP makes sure the webpage is broken
into packets, sent to your device, and put back together correctly.

• FTP (File Transfer Protocol):

• Used to upload and download files between a client and a server over the
Internet. Uses TCP/IP protocol for data transfer
• Example: When you download a large file from a website, FTP might be used
to manage the transfer.
• POP (Post Office Protocol):
• Used by email clients to retrieve emails from a server.
• The most common version is POP3, supported by many webmail services like Gmail
and Yahoo Mail.
• Example: When you check your email, POP3 or IMAP is used to retrieve the
messages from the server to your email client.
• HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol):
• Used for transmitting web pages (HTML documents) over the Internet.
• The foundation for communication on the World Wide Web.
• HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure):
• A secure version of HTTP that uses encryption (SSL/TLS) to protect data.
• Commonly used for secure transactions, like online shopping.
Example: When you browse the web, HTTP/HTTPS protocols load the webpages.
• UDP (User Datagram Protocol):
• A fast, connectionless, and unreliable protocol used for transmitting data where
speed is prioritized over reliability.
• Use Cases: Streaming, online gaming, VoIP, and other real-time applications.

• SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol):

• Standard protocol for sending emails over the Internet.
• Example: When you send an email, SMTP is used to transfer it from your
email client to the recipient’s email server.
The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model is a way to
OSI Model:
understand how different computer systems communicate
over a network. It divides the process into seven layers, each
with a specific role. Let's break it down: "Please Do Not Trust Strangers, Please Ask."
• 1. Physical Layer
What It Does: Handles the physical connection between
devices, like cables and switches.
Example: Ethernet cables, Wi-Fi signals.
• 2. Data Link Layer
What It Does: Manages the data transfer between two
devices on the same network.
Example: Network cards in your computer, MAC addresses.
• 3. Network Layer
What It Does: Determines the best path to send data across
networks.
Example: IP addresses, routers.
• 4. Transport Layer
What It Does: Ensures data is transferred correctly and in the
right order.
Example: TCP (Transmission Control Protocol).
• 5. Session Layer
What It Does: Manages the connections between devices,
keeping them open and closing them when needed.
Example: Managing a video call session.
6. Presentation Layer
What It Does: Translates data between the network and the
application, ensuring it's in a readable format.
"Please Do Not Trust Strangers, Please Ask."
Example: Encryption, data compression.

7. Application Layer
What It Does: Provides services for network applications to
work, like web browsers and email.
Example: HTTP (used for websites), FTP (used for file transfers).

How It All Fits Together

Think of the OSI model like a cake with seven layers. Each layer
depends on the one below it to function properly.
When you send a message over the internet, it goes down
through these layers on your device and then up through the
layers on the receiving device.

Why It’s Important

• Helps us understand and troubleshoot network issues.
• Ensures different systems and devices can work together.

So, the OSI model is a guide that helps us understand how data
travels from one device to another over a network, making sure
everything works smoothly.
 Sending an Email:
Application Layer (Layer 7):
You click "Send" in your email app.
The email app uses a protocol (like SMTP) to prepare your message.

Presentation Layer (Layer 6):

The email is compressed/Encrypted and prepared for transmission in proper format.

Session Layer (Layer 5):

A session (or connection) is opened between your device and the email server.

Transport Layer (Layer 4):

The email is broken down into smaller pieces called segments.(Reliable & Error Free)

Network Layer (Layer 3):

These segments are further divided into packets, labeled with the destination address.
(decides the best path for the data to travel across networks.)
Data Link Layer (Layer 2):
Packets are turned into frames for easier transmission.(handles error detection and
frames the data)

Physical Layer (Layer 1):

Frames are converted into a stream of bits (1s and 0s) and sent through a physical
medium like cables or wireless signals.
 Receiving an Email:

Physical Layer (Layer 1):

The stream of bits (1s and 0s) arrives at the recipient's device.

Data Link Layer (Layer 2):

Bits are reassembled into frames.

Network Layer (Layer 3):

Frames are reassembled into packets.

Transport Layer (Layer 4):

Packets are reassembled into segments.

Session Layer (Layer 5):

The session is maintained to keep the communication open.

Presentation Layer (Layer 6):

The email is decompressed and prepared for viewing.

Application Layer (Layer 7):

The email appears in the recipient's email app, ready to be read.
Thank you